UARL  IISCHER'S  REVISED   AND  AACENDED  EDITION 


LOGIER'S   SYSTEM 


OF  AX(D 


SELF  IHSTRUCTOR 


m 


THE  SCIENCE  OF  MUSIC 
HAEMONY, 


AND 


PRACTICAL  COMPOSITION 


3rnia 
al 


COMPLETE, 


I 


TOCiETIIKl;     WITH 

?»KIU/)IZ:  THK  OnCfrESTKAI.  (ONDIXTOH 


NEW  YOKK 

*•' 

PuBLisiiKi.  Hv  CARI^FISCFI-KR,  6,8  and  10  Im.uuth  Avenue 


CopyrigLt,  1?.S9,  by  C'AitL  Fi.s(iiKR 


THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 

MUSIC  LIBRARY 


GIFT  OF 
GERALD  SCORDAN 


UARL  FISCHER'S  REVISED   AND   AMENDED   EDITION 


LOGIER'S   SYSTEM 


SELF  INSTRUCTOR 


nr 


THE  SCIENCE  OF  MUSIC 
HARMOJSTY, 

AND 

PRACTICAL  COMPOSITION 


COMPLETE. 


TOGETHER    WITH 


BERLOIZ :  THE  OlICHESTRAL  CONDUCTOR 

NEW  YORK 
Published  ky  CARL  FISCHER,  6,  8  and  10  Fourth  Avenue 


Copyright,  1889,  by  Carl  Fischer 


Musfe 


M 


CONTENTS. 


RUDIMENTS  OF  MUSIC  BY  ARTHUR  A.  CLAPPE. 


PAGE. 

Sound 5 

Music 5 

Pitch •     .     .  5 

Staff 6 

Clefs 6 

Added  Lines 6 

Duration 6 

Bar  Lines 7 

Time  Signatures 7 

Ties,  or  Dots 8 

Scales 8 

Keys 9 

Accidentals 9 

Descending  Minor  Scales   ....  10 

Chords 11 

Intervals 11 

Harmony 11 

Melody 12 

Accent 13 

Articulation 13 

Dynamics 13 


PAGE. 

Speed  (Metronome) 14 

Modifications  (Terms) 14 

Style  (Terms) 15 

Embellishments 15 

Kules  for  playing  the  Turn     ...  16 

Abbreviations 17 

Expression  (Mechanical)    ....  IS 

Expression  (Artistic) 18 

Tone 18 

Taking  Breath 18 

Tim.e 18 

Tune 19 

How  to  tune  band  Instruments  .     .  19 

Musical  Library 19 

Terms  applied  to  Musical  Composi- 
tions    20 

Schools,  or  Methods,  etc 21 

Transposition 21 

Tonal  System 22 

Chart    sho^wing    compass  of 

all  Instruments 23 


LOGIER'S  SYSTE3I   OF  THE  SCIENCE  AND    PRACTICE  OF  MUSIC. 


Construction  of  the  Common  Chord    25 

Its  Bass 26 

Its  Three  Positions 26,  27 

Melody  and  Harmony  Defined  .  .  27 
Discovery     of      the     Fundamental 

Basses 28 

First  Rule  of  Harmonizing    ...     29 

The  Signature 30 

Fundamental  Basses  to  Melodies  .  31 
Harmonization  of  Melodies    .     .31,  32 

Themes  for  Exercise 32 

Consecutive  Fifths  and  Eighths.  34,  35 
Diversification     of     the     Common 

Chord 35,  36 

Observations  on  the  Chord  of  the 

Dominant  Seventh 37 

Figuring  the  Bass .38 

Principles  of  Thorough  Bass.  .  .  38 
Chord  of  the  Fundamental  Seventh 

and  its  Eesolutions     ....  -38,  39 

Harmony  in  four  pnrts 41 

Second  Method  of  preventing  Con- 


secutive Fifths  and  Eighths     .     . 
Fundamental  Seventh  in  Harmony 

of  four  parts 

Second  Ride  of  Harmonizing.     .     . 

Themes  for  Exercises 

Third  Rule  of  Harmonizing  .     .     . 

Themes 

Fourth  Rule 

The  Four  Rules  Combined.     .     .     . 

Themes 

Peculiar     Character    of    the    four 

parts  in  Harmony 

Concise  Retrospect 

Precautionary  Hints  resi)ecting  the 

Employment  of  the  Four  Rules  . 
Hints   respecting  the  Employment 

of  the  Fourth  Rule     ....  .55, 
Major  and  Minor  Chords    .... 
Sharps  or  Flats  in  INIinor  Keys   .     . 
Relative  Major  and  Minor  Keys.     . 
Specimens  of  Variation  leading  to 

Extemporaneous  Performances  . 


41 


43 
44 
46 
47 
49 
50 
50 
51 


Harmonics 

Scale  of  Three  Sounds 

Its  Fundamental  Basses     .... 

Harmonized 

Scale  of  Six  Sounds 

Natural  Succession  of  Scales  of 
Three  Sounds 

Progression 62, 

Modulation 

Relationship  of  Keys  by  Modula- 
tion  65, 


AN  ESSAY  ON  MODULATION. 

Intervals  of  the  three  Fundamental 

basses  selected  as  Dominants  .     . 

The  8th  of  the  Tonic 


60 
60 
61 
()1 
62 


62 
63 
64 

66 


3rd 
5th 
3rd 
8th 
3rd 


Tonic.  .  .  . 
Dominant  .  . 
Dominant  .  . 
Sub-dominant 
Sub-tlominant 


Extraneous  Keys   . 
Practical  Exercises 


54 

55 

56 
56 
57 

57 

59 


68 
68 
69 
70 
71 
71 
72 
73 
78 


CONTENTS. 


AX  ESSAY  Oy 

What  are  inverted  Basses ".'     ...     si 

Effects  produced SI 

First  Inversion  of  the  Chord  of  the 

Dominant  Seventh 82 

Figuring  the  Bass S2 

Second  Inversion S4 

AN  ESSAY   OX 
A    Dissonance,    Suspension     of    a 

Consonance 101 

Discord,  Chord  with  a  Dissonance.  102 
Preparation  and  Kest)hition   .     .     .  108 
The  Fourth  resolved  into  the  Third  104 
The  Xinth  resolved  into  the  Eighth  107 
The  Fourth  prepared  by  the  Funda- 
mental Seventh  .......   109 

Compound  Dissonances  of  the  4,  ?>, 

audi),  S 110 

EXTEXDED  HARJtfOXY  AND 


IXYERTED  BASSES. 

Third  Inversion 85 

Examination  and  Exercises    ...  86 

Inversions  of  the  Common  Chord  .  90 

Inversions  in  Harmonized  Melodies  91 

Rules  and  Exercises 92 


Compressed  and  Extended  Har- 
mony compared 123 

Minor  Scale  —  its  Construction  and 
Harmonies 126 

Minor  Melody  Harmonized     .     .     .   121) 

Chord  of  the  Minor  Ninth.     .     .     .   131 

Modulation  through  all  the  Relative 
Minor  Keys  by  Fundamental  Basses  133 

Inversions  of  the  Minor  Xinth   .     .   133 

MODULATION  IN  MELODIES  BY  THE  INTRODUCTION  OF  ACCIDENTALS. 

Modulation  by  accidentals  occur- 
ring in  a  Melody 1-10 

Modulation  by  Intervals  of  a  Melody  148 


DISSONANCES. 

The  Sixth  prepared  by  the  Third  .  112 
All  the  Dissonances  Combined  .  .  113 
Accented  parts  of  a  Bar     ....  114 

Strict  and  Free  Styles 115 

Figuring  Dissonances     .     .     .    115,  116 

Cadences 117 

Chord  of  the  added  Sixth  ....  118 
Figuring  Inverted  Dissonances  118,  119 
Comi)rehensive  Exercises  ....  120 

THE  MINOR   SCALE. 

Chord  of  tlie  Diminished  Seventh  135 
Chord  of  the  Sharp  Second  .  .  .  137 
Fifth  Rule  of  Harmonizing  .  .  .  137 
Minor  Xinth  in  Melodies  ....  138 
Major  Melodies  changed  to  Minor  .  139 
Minor  Scales  arising  from  Passing 

Xotes 140 

Practical  Exercises 141 

Arrangement  for  the  Piano-forte    .  142 


192 


162 
166 
167 
K57 


Rule  1,  ascending  a  Half  Tone  .  .  148 
Rule  2,  descending  a  Half  Tone  .  150 
Rule  3,  descending  a  Whole  Tone  .  152 
Rule  4,  ascending  a  Whole  Tone  .  153 
Rule  5,  successively  repeated.  .  .  155 
Rule  0,  ascending  a  Fourth  .  .  .  159 
New  Melodies  extracted  from  Har- 
monies    

Free  Motions  in  Harmcmy  .... 
Hidden  Fifths  and  Eighths  .  .  . 
Notes  of  Embellishment    .     .     .     . 

Passing  Notes 168 

Passing  Notes  converted  into  Notes 

of  Modulation 169 

Auxilliary  Xotes 171 

Extended   Passing   and   Auxilliary 

Xotes 174 

Secondary  Harmony 178 

Passages  for  Imitation 17(^ 

Writing  for  tlie  Piano-forte    .     .     .181 

Writing  Variations 182 

Recapitulation 184-186 

Retardation,    or   ascending    Disso- 
nances         187 

Chord  of  the  Eleventh  .     .     ...     .190 

"  "  "        Prepared    .  191 

"         "  "       Unprepared.  191 


"  "  '■       Embellished 

with    4,     3, 

and  6,  5 192,  193 

Chord  of  the  Thirteenth    ....  194 

"      of  the  Sharp  Sixth  ....  195 

"      of      the     Compound    Sharp 

Sixth 193 

Cadences,  continued  from  page  1 17.  200 

Irregular  Cadences 200 

Imperfect  Cadences 203 

False  Cadences 204 

Interrupted  or  Broken  Cadences     .  206 
Irregular  False  Cadences    ....  206 

Suspended  Cadences 206 

Great  Cadences 207 

Equivocal  Modulation 207 

Deceptive  Modulation 214 

Protracted  Modulation 216 

Modulation  through  Ascending  and 

Descending  Chromatic  Scale  .     .  218 
Inversion  of  Minor  Ninth  .     .    218,  219 

Modified  Basses ..220 

Sequences  of  Sevenths 224 

Bass  Melody  with  Sequences .     .     .  229 
Sequences  of   Sevenths  and  Domi- 
nants       230 

Sequences  of  Sixths,  6,  5,  and  7,  6 .  232 


Three  Motions  in  Harmony  .  .  .  235 
Consecutive  Fifths  and  Eighths.  .  236 
Hidden  Fifths  and  Eighths     .     .     .237 

COMPOSITION. 

Construction  of  Melodies  ....  239   I    Composition 254 

Accent  and  Rhythm 239   j    Strict  and  Free  Styles 263 

Periods     . 244    i    Analyzation 264 

How  to  Construct  Melodies    .     .     .  249    I    Concluding  Observations   ....  280 


RUDIMENTS   OF   MUSIC. 


By  Akthuk  a.  Clappe,  M.  M.  C.  M., 


Editor  of  The  Metronome. 


1.  Everything  we  hear  is  termed  Sound. 

2.  Sound  is  the  product  of  aerial  disturbances  communicated  to  the  tympanum 
of  the  ear,  in  intermittent  shocks  of  such  extreme  rapidity  of  recurrence,  as  to 
produce  the  effect  of  a  continuous  tone. 

3.  When  the  area  of  disturbance  is  large,  the  sound  at  point  of  generation  is 
loud;  but  when  small,  is  soft^  proportionately  with  the  modified  degree  of 
commotion. 

4.  Sound  radiates  from  a  given  centre  in  two  manners;  that  is,  one  originating 
body  may  throw  off  regular  shocks,  or  vibrations,  while  in  another  they  may  be  of 
a  conflicting  or  complex  nature,  owing  to  the  diflEering  structure  of  the  two. 

5.  Complex  vibrations  produce  Noise,  regular  vibrations  result  in  Music. 


6.  Music  is  at  once  a  Science  and  an  Art.  A  science,  as  teaching  the  origin, 
properties  and  combination  of  musical  sounds ;  an  art,  as  appealing  to  our  emo- 
tions and  the  inherent  love  of  the  beautiful  in  nature. 

PITCH. 

7.  The  variation  in  the  altitude  of  sound  is  called  Pitch. 

8.  When  the  aerial  vibrations  are  very  rapid  they  produce  high  sounds;  when 
slow,  low  sotinds  are  the  result,  while  the  mean  between  the  two  creates  medium 
sounds. 

9.  The  pitch  of  musical  sounds  is  expressed  on  paper  by  means  of  a  series  of 
parallel  lines  and  spaces,  eleven  lines  and  ten  spaces,  each  of  which  is  named  by  a 
letter  of  the  alphabet,  the  first  seven  of  which  are  used,  viz.,  A,  B,  C,  D,  E,  F,  G. 


RUDIMENTS   OF    iMUSIC. 


10.  The  parallel  lines  and  spaces  are  termed  the  Gkkat  Staff,  and  are  namecl 
as  follows,  viz.  : 

Lines.  Spaces. 


11.  For  band  or  orchestra  :nstruments  and  voice,  also  for  greater  conven- 
ience in  reading,  the  Great  Staff  is  divided  into  three  parts.  The  bottom  section, 
representing  low  or  Bass  sounds;  middle  section,  medium  or  Tenok  sounds;  top 
section,  high  or  Treble  sounds. 

CLEFS. 

12.  To  show  definitely  wliich  division  of  sounds  it  is  intended  to  employ,  char- 
acters termed  Clefs  are  used. 

13.  There  are  three  clefs  in  general  use,  viz.: 

^,  F,  or  Bass  Clef ;    M,    C,  Tekok,  or  Alto  Clef  ;     ffi,  G,  Treble,  or  Sopkako  Clef. 

14.  The  clefs  are  assigned  as  follows,  five  lines  to  each  division: 

jj_. F5 

lozzzzzzzzzzz  ^zzi::ziz?z:  I 

8 _^ . — e"-5^ E 1 

6  —  ~  ~  ~  ~y^7^"  ft    — ^~  Z  Z  Z  Z 

IM F-— 4 ^ F 2 

I  ±f -D 3 D 1- 


2 


-B 2- 


1 G ' 

15.  Each  division  is  termed  a  Staff. 


added  (ledger)  lines. 
16.  Frequently  it  becomes  necessary  to  extend  the  limits  of  the  staff.     In  such 
cases,  short  lines  termed  Ledger  (Fr.,  legere)  lines   are  added,  which,  with  the 
intervening  spaces,  are  named  in  progressive  order  similarly  with  the  staff. 


ex. 


17.  Duration  of  musical  sounds  is  computed  by  beats. 

18.  Beats  are  those  movements  of  the  hand,  foot,  or  mechanism,  which,  like 
the  oscillations  ot  a  pendulum  of  a  clock,  mark  the  passage  of  time. 

19.  Duration  of  sound  is  expressed  by  characters  termed  notes,  each  of  which 
is  equal  to  one  or  more  heats,  or  to  the  fractional  part  thereof. 

20.  The  unit  of  Time  is  J  one  beat,  and  termed  a  quarter  note 

21.  A  note  double  the  vaiue  is     I    two  beats,  termed  a  half  note. 

22.  The  simple  note   of  longest  duration  in  modern  music  is  q  four  beats, 
termed  a  whole  note. 


RUDIMENTS  OF   MUSIC.  1 

23.  Fractional  parts  of  the  unit  of  time,  or  single  beat,  are, 

J      =      J  ^ two  Eighth  KoTKS. 

J      =       ^^  ^'5  J^    four  Sixteenth  Notes. 

J      =      ^^5    J^  w*^  m  m  m  m   eight  Thiktt-second  Notes. 

24.  Occasionally  irregular  quantities,  uneven  numbers  of  notes,  are  employed 
in  beats  or  measures.  When  such  is  the  case,  these  uneven  groups  are  denoted 
l>y  figures  written  above  or  below. 

Termed  a  Triplet.  Quintuplet.  Sextuplet.  Septdtlet. 

Playerl  in  ,  , 

time  of  J  J  J 

25.  Cessation  of  sound  in  music  for  definite  periods,  is  indicated  by  rests, 
OT  silences,  as  follows:  viz.: 

__=|  -  =  J|  i  =J|-,U. ^|i  =  ^11  =  ^11 

BAR   LINES. 

26.  Bars  are   short  lines   drawn  vertically    across    the  ^E  and,  are  used  to 

define  quantity  or  recurring  stress  of  accent  in  music. 

27.  The  DOUBLE  bar  ^H^  denotes  a  complete  idea,  or  close;  in  other  words, 
a  full  period  in  music. 

TIME    SIGNATURES. 

28.  To  assist  the  eye  in  calculating  at  a  glance  the  exact  quantity  of  time,  or 
beats,  included  between  two  or  more  bar  lines,  fractional  figures  are  usually 
written  after  the  clef  at  the  beginning  of  a  piece  of  music :     ^~_ 

29.  The  upper  of  tlietwo  figures  expresses  simply  quantity,  the  lower,  quality. 

30.  The  lower  figures,  or  denominators,  generally  employed  are  2,  4  and  0, 
though  occasionally  others  are  used,  as  1,  16  and  32. 

81.  2,  as  the  denominator,  means   ^  lialf  notes; 
4,  "         "         "  "         J   quarter  notes; 

8,         "         "         "  "         J"  eighth  notes. 

33.  The  upper  figure  or  enumerator,  tells  exactly  how  many  half-quarters  or 
eighth  notes  are  used  in  each  bar  or  measure  of  the  music. 

jcx.   CEn — 3 — 2 — A — ^ — A — a — a — n 


3-  — 


^  B  B 

fP  fD  O 

»  fO  to 

K  cc  CO 

§  ^  s 


RUDIMENTS  OP  MUSIC. 


33.  The  character  C  equals   4   and  is  termed  corrmwn  time,  while  0  equals  * 
and  is  termed  alla  breve  (ahl'lah  hray'vay). 

34.  The  foregoing  figures  are  termed  the  time  signature. 

35.  Time  signatures  are  said  to  be  duple  when   expressing  two  beats  to  the 
measure ;  triple  when  three,  and  quadruple  when  four. 

36.  They  are  again  sim2:>le  and  compound,  as  per  ex.  : 
— 1 


-| — 


p. 

e  U- 


Duple. 


$ 


Triple. 


!  e 


Quadruple. 

4       4 
4       8 


6 
16 


-r- 


9 

16 


»l 


i2 


TIES,    OR    DOTS. 

37.  At  times  it  is  necessary  to  increase  the  value  of  a  certain  sound  beyond  the 
duration  of  the  simple  note.  There  are  two  methods  of  effecting  this:  first,  by 
a  ^^^  termed  tie,  J^J^,  which  binds  the  two  notes  together ;  second,  by  the  addi- 
tion of  a  dot,  af  J.  —     I       ^. 

SCALES. 

38.  The  distance  from  one  sound  to  the  next  immediately  above  or  below,  is 
termed  a  tone. 

39.  There  are  two  kinds  of  tone  steps;  viz. :  Whole  Tones  and  Ilalf  Tones. 

40.  Two  whole-tone  steps  and  one  half-tone  form  a  tetrachord  (Gr.,  four 
strings).  Two  tetrachords  in  following,  joined  by  a  uniting  tone,  making  in  all 
five  whole-tones  and  two  half-tones,  form  a  Diatonic  (Gr.,  through  the  tones) 
Scale.     (Ital.,  Scala,  a  ladder).      Vide  ex.:  43. 

41.  There  are  two  forms  of  the  diatonic  scale,  viz. :  Major  and  Minor. 

42.  When  the  half-tones  occur  between  the  3d  and  4th,  and  7th  and  8th,  the 
scale  is  Major,  but  when  between  the  2d  and  3d,  and  7th  and  8th,  the  scale  is 
Minor. 

43.  Another  kind  of  scale  is  the  Chromatic  (Gr.,  chroma,  color).  This  scale 
consists  entirely  of  semitones. 

SCALE 

^ , 


Diatonic. 


Major. 

Ascenrilng  or 

desceufling  form. 


Minor. 
Ascending  form. 


nnlttng 
tone. 


\1. 


half  tone 
7-- 


halftone 
3-- 


Chromatic. 

Ascending  or 

descending  form. 


half  tone 


half  tone 


RUDIMENTS  OF  MUSIC. 


9 


44.  The  normal  scale  commences  on  the  c  position  of  the  staff. 

KEYS. 

45.  It  is  frequently  necessary  to  change'the  position  of  the  scale,  and  begin  on 
some  other  sound  than  c ;  when  such  is  the  case,  in  order  to  preserve  the  above 
order  of  full-tones  and  half-tones,  certain  characters  termed  Sharps  and  Flats 
are  used,  and,  which  placed  in  the  signature,  retain  their  influence  throughout 
the  composition,  unless  a  contradiction  intervene. 

46.  A  sharp,       raises  the  pitch  of  a  line  or  space,   on  which  written,  a  half 
tone.     On  the  contrary,  a  flat,  jz,  lowers  the  line  or  space  a  half  tone. 

47.  The  following  table  will  show  the  number  of  sharps  or  flats  necessary  for 
each  scale  alteration  of  pitch,  either  Major  or  Minor  : 


major, 


E 

minor. 


2 
F&C 


E3=- 

D 


3 
F.  C 
&G 

-M 


n 


4 
F,  C.G 
&  D 


Utl 


"e 

or 


5 
F,  C,  G, 
D&  A 


'53^ 


i®^ 


G« 


D,  A& 


%^ 


n 


DJ 


1= 


P.  0,  0.  D, 
A,  E  &B 

rfc5ft 


tm 


-^^= 


Off 


Alt 


2  a? 
St- 


1 


^3= 

P 

major 

or 

D 

minor. 


2 

Bfe&Efcr 


3 

.Eb& 
At? 


H^ 


E^6^ 


^ 


Efe 


BkEk  Ab 


E^t' 


'^-- 


^^ 


Afe 


Bb,Eb,A|,, 


=^- 


?rlr 


-k^= 


Dfe 


Bfe 


B|j,E|i,A 
D|i,Gb&X;|7 


^c^ 


E^ 


E|7 


7 
Bb,EI>,A|,, 
»l?,G|7,C|j, 

AFfe 


r&= 


Cb 


Ab 


48.  C  major  and  A  minor  have  neither  sharps  nor  flats  in  the  signature. 
Major  keys  are  said  to  be  related  to  minor  keys  in  the  above  order. 

49.  The  first  note  of  a  scale  is  termed  the  key  note,  and  gives  its  name  to 
the  scale. 

accidentals. 

50.  In  order  to  preserve  the  proper  order  of  half-tones  in  the  minor  scale,  the 
fifth  and  sixth  degrees  must  be  raised ;  to  do  this  accidentals  are  employed,  that  is, 
signs  other  than  in  the  signature. 

51.  For  this  purpose  are  used  (1)  the  sharp,  it,  (2)  douhle  sharp,  -^j 
(3)  natural,  contradiction,  or  restorer,  j;|. 

52.  The   double   sharp   raises  the  pitch  of   line  or   space  a  full  tone  higher. 

53.  The  J3  restores  a  line  or  space  whereon  a  flat  or  sharp  has  been  used  to  its 
normal  pitch,  (1),  by  contradicting  within  the  limit  of  a  bar,  or  measure,  only 


10 


RUDIMENTS  OP  MUSIC. 


the   sharp   or  flat  in  a  signature;  (2),  by  contradicting   accidentals   previouslj 
employed  in  a  measure. 

54.  The  double  flat,  ''p.\i,  is  occasionally  used,  and  lowers  a  line  or  space  a  full- 
tone. 

55.  When  it  is  required  to  contradict  a  jjj  or  t?2,  the  H  must  be  used  double 
(J3  ij)  where  the  sound  is  to  be  restored  to  its  normal  pitch,  as  in  the  key  of  C ;  but 
if  the  restoration  involve  only  a  half-tone,  then  the  fa  must  be  accompanied  by  a 
sharp  or  flat,  as  the  case  may  be. 


^  -(- — 

D  z  becomes  Dtj.  Dx  becomes  Djf.^     B\^  becomes  Bfl.    B^  becomes  B|j. 

56.  An  accidental  has  influence,  (1),  in  the  measure  where  it  appears;  (3), 
when  written  before  the  last  note  of  one  measure  it  controls  the  first  note  only  oj 
the  next,  providing  such  note  be  on  the  same  line  or  space  (degree)  of  the  staff. 

1  2 

57.  The  first  note  in  the  second  measure,  unless  contradicted,  would  infer 
the  sound  of  DJJ;  but  the  second  D,  and  without  contradiction,  would  be  Djj. 

DESCENDING    MINOR   SCALES. 

58.  The  scale  patterns  given  after  paragraph  43  show  the  major  and  chromatic 
scales  to  have  the  same  form — that  is,  the  same  relation  of  whole-tones  and  half- 
tones in  both  ascending  and  descending  forms,  while  the  pattern  of  the  minor 
scale  shows  simply  the  ascending  form,  inferring  that  a  difference  exists  between 
that  and  the  descending  form. 

59.  Such  difference  really  exists,  and  in  two  forms  common  to  modern  prac- 
tice, the  first  of  which  we  may  term  the  conjunct  and  the  second  the  disjunct, 
or  harmonic  form. 

60.  The  CONJUNCT  form  of  the  descending  minor  scale  is  controlled  by  the 
key  signature,  and  has  five  whole-tones  and  two-half-tones;  but  the  disjunct 
form  has  three  whole-tones,  two  half-tones  and  one  step  of  a  whole-tone  and  half. 

Descending  Minor  Scale. 

. 1 1 

Conjunct  form.  Disjunct  form. 


'^ 

4i> 

^ 

^ 

to 

p. 
c» 
a 

o 

5 
S 

M 

-8—- 

7 1 

-6 

j 

1 

1  '..tone 

— 8- 
— 7- 

1 

t 

'll 

; 
il 

M 

1 

Uniting 
tone. 

t 

*           1 

5 

3. 

M 

1 

1 

K 

[1 

2- 

^           1 

1  1 

' 

.'  t. 

ll 

RUDIMENTS   OF  MUSIC. 


11 


CHORDS. 

61.  A  COMMON  CHORD  is  composed  of  several  sounds  selected  from  the  scale, 
which,  when  played  or  sung  in  unison,  will  produce  a  pleasing  effect  upon  the 
ear. 

62.  The  sounds  or  tones  selected  are  1,  3,  5  and  8. 

63.  Common  chords  are  (1)  major,  when  the  sounds  are  selected  from  the 
major  scale;  (2)  minor,  when  drawn  from  the  minor  scale. 

64.  A  combination  of  1,  3  and  5  only  is  termed  a  triad. 

INTERVALS. 

65.  The  distance  from  one  sound  to  another  is  termed  an  interval. 

66.  Intervals  may  be  (1)  major,  (2)  minor,  (3)  augmented,  (4)  diminished. 
The  terms  perfect  and  imperfect  are  at  times  applied  to4ths  and  5ths. 

2d.  3d.  4th.        5th.  6th.  7th.    8th,  or  octave 


77    -Gh^     -^  o-  -«>-  -^  -^  -s>- 


HARMONY. 

67.  The  combination  of  two  or  more  sounds  in  a  pleasing  manner  constitutes 
the  first  principle  of  harmony. 

68.  Harmony  is  that  branch  of  music  which  treats  of  the  grammatical 
arrangement  and  progression  of  chords. 

69.  Chords  are  either  concords  or  DISCORDS.  Concords  when  composed  of  1, 
major,  or  minor  3d,  perfect  5th,  and  octave.  Discords  when  other  than  the  fore- 
going intervals  are  used,  as  :  Concord.  Discord. 


^^ — -^i 

70.  The  two  principal  chords  are  :  (1)  common  chord,  based  on  the  keynote 

and  termed  the  chord  op  the  tonic;  (2)  the  chord  based  on  the  5th  of  the  .«cale, 

composed    of  the  intervals   1,    3,    5,    minor  7   and  8,  named  the  chord  of  the 

dominant. 

Dominant. 


71.  The  chord  next  in  importance  is  that  built  on  the  4th  degree  of  the  scale 
and  named  the  sub-dominant.  In  the  key  of  C,  for  instance,  the  chord  of  the  sub- 
dominant  would  be,  F,  A,  C  and  F. 

72.  Each  degree  of  the  scale  has  a  specific  technical  name  for  purposes  of 
harmony,  as  follows : 

1st  degree To.vic. 

2d  degree Super  Tonic. 

3d  degree Mediant. 

4th  degree Sub-dominant. 

5th  degree Dominant. 

6th  degree Sub-mediant. 

7th  degree : Leading  Note. 


12 


RUDIMENTS  OP  MUSIC. 


73.  A  combination  of  three  sounds,  each  at  the  interval  of  a  3d  from  .be 
other,  is  termed  a  Tkiad. 

74.  Triads  may  be  formed  on  each  degree  of  the  scale,  major  or  minor,  giving 
rise  to  major,  minor,  augmented  and   diminished  triads,  as  per  example: 

C  Major.  Triads  of  the  Major  Scale. 

Tonic.       Supertonic.    Mediant.    Subdominant.    Dominant.    Submediant.    Leading  note. 

Major.  Minor.  Minor.  Major  Major.  Minor.       Diminished. 


C  Minor. 


Triads  of  the  Minor  Scale. 


;^p 


Major. 


Dirainished. 


Minor.    Diminished.    Augmented.      Minor.  Major. 

75.  All  chords  are  numbered  from  their  base. 

76.  Motion  of  parts  in  harmony  are :  (1)  contrary,  (2)  oblique,  (3)  similar. 
Contrary,  where  the  notes  in  one  part  ascend,  while  in  another  they  descend  ; 
oblique,  where  one  part  maintains  or  reiterates  the  same  note,  while  the  other 
moves  up  or  down ;  similar,  where  all  parts  move  in  the  same  direction. 

77.  Cadence  is  a  term  applied  to  the  close  of  a  phrase  or  period,  including 
the  two  final  chords. 

78.  There  are  four  kinds  of  cadences:  (1)  Authentic,  (2)  Plagal,  (3)  Im- 
perfect, (4)  Deceptive.  The  authentic  cadence  is  a  final  close  or  progression 
from  dominant  to  tonic  harmony ;  the  plagal  cadence  forms  also  a  final  close,  and 
is  a  progression  of  subdominant  to  tonic.  This  cadence  is  used  chiefly  for  sacred 
compositions,  and  is  very  effective.  The  Imperfect  cadence  is  constructed  so  as  to 
form  a  half  close,  leading  the  ear  to  expect  something  to  follow.  It  is  the  close 
of  the  antecedent,  and  requires  a  consequent  to  lead  to  finish.  The  deceptivk 
cadence  is  formed  of  any  unexpected  following  of  chords  which  occur  at  the  end 
of  phrase  or  period. 

79.  Modulation  is  the  regular  transition  by  grammatical  flow  from  one  key 
to  another. 

80.  Modulation  is  of  four  kinds:  (1)  Natural,  (2)  Gradual,  (3)  Sudden, 
(4)  Extraneous. 

[N.  B.— Harmony  will  be  discussed  exhaustively  in  a  succeeding  portion  of  this  work.     It  is,  there 
fore,  treated  most  briefly  here.] 

MELODY. 

81.  Sounds  80  arranged  in  order  of  following  as  to  present  a  complete  musical 
idea  and  be  at  the  same  time  interesting,  form  a  melody. 

82.  The  grammar  of  melody  is  (1)  the  motive  : 


(3)  PlIKASE 


^egP:^^^ 


(4)  Sentence,  t; 


Section. 


Section, 


Section. 


Section. 


RUDIMENTS   OP   MUSIC.  13 

83.  Quantity  ia  music  may  be  composed  of  sound  interspersed  with  silence, 
or  rest,  and  still  the  continuity  of  the  idea  be  uninterrupted. 

84.  If  a  melody  commence  with  one  or  more  preliminary  notes,  i.  e.,  a  part 
of  a  measure,  the  value  of  such  must  be  subtracted  from  the  final  measure  of  the  sentence 
or  subject  (complete  melody). 

ACCENT. 

85.  The  leading  or  primary  accent  in  a  melody  is  on  the  note  immedi- 
ately following  the  bar  line.     Duple  time  has  primary  and  secondary  accents. 

/\  >  Quadruple  tim^  has  also  primary  and  secondary 

accents.     Triple  time  has  primary,   secondary 
and  tertiary  accents.         /\    _^    , 

o       I        >        I   I 


86.  Irregularities  of  accent  are  common  in  music.  They  are  produced  by  antici^ 
pating  or  retarding  the  regular  accent  and  thus  throwing  on  to  otherwise  sub- 
ordinate beats  the  stress  properly  belonging  to  those  usually  more  important. 

4  J  '  J   J  J  I  J   J  -^  I 
Ex.    Anticipated.    4^^zL^  -CT^ — — * — I 

Retaram.     2._±_ilL_*_!_±_*_«! |_±_*_* ]mlmtJ  -f-    I 

Such  irregularities  of  accent  are  termed  syncopation. 

ARTICULATION. 

87.  Articulation  is  as  important  in  music  as  in  elocution. 

The  signs  of  articulation  are  (1)  the  legato,  (lay-gah-to)  connected,  flowing  ;  '^  ^  (2)  semi-lega- 
to,  rTT": :  staccato,  (sta-kah-to)  •  •  •  •  detached,  short  :  (4)  puntato.  (pun-tah-toh)  '  '  '  '  very 
pointed. 


Legato.       Semi-legato.    Staccato.       Puatato. 

88.  When   none   of  above   signs  are   employed,   the  notes  must  be  playeJ 
smoothly,  neither  too  long  nor  too  sliort. 

DYNAMICS. 

89.  Diminution,  force  or   stress   is   expressed   by  the  following   signs   and 
words : 

A     lenuto, (tay-noo-'toh), to  hold. 

>     explosive  tone sudden  attack,  slightly  diminishing- 

[ores,  or  crescendo, (cray-schen-'doh,) gradually  increasing. 

■dim,,  or  diminnemlo (rtira-in-oo-en-do,) gradually  decrea.sing. 

•  crescendo  e  diminuendo increasing  and  diminishing. 

6/2,  or  s/orzando sfort-sahn-doh sudden  attack,  forced. 

p,  piano p'yah-no softly. 

2)p,  pianigsimo peeah-nis'see-mo. very  softly 

mf,  mezzo-forte med'zo-for-tay ..medium  loud, 

f,forle ,for-tay loud. 

jf,fortisnino... .  for-tis'see-mo very  loud. 


14 


RUDIMENTS   OP   MUSIC. 


SPEED. 

90.  Relative  speed  or  time  in  music  is  indicated  by  (1)  Italian  terms,  (2)  by 
au  instrument  called  a  "  Metronome,"  (Met-ro-nome,  time  measure). 

91 ,  The  metronome  is  a  mechanical  instrument  of  somewhat  pyramidal  shape, 
used  to  indicate  the  relative  duration  of  musical  sounds.  The  contrivance  con- 
tains within  works  resembling  those  of  a  clock,  having  on  its  exterior  front  a 
graded  scale  similar  to  that  of  a  thermometer.  lu  front  of  which,  but  attached 
to  the  inner  works,  is  an  upright  balance  rod — pendulum — notched  to  correspond 
with  the  marks  and  numerals  on  the  body  of  the  instrument  carrying  a  movable 
regulator — nut — which  may  be  set  opposite  any  number  of  the  scale.  The  pendu- 
lum being  set  in  motion  sways  to  and  fro  at  the  rate  per  minute  indicated  by  such 
number,  making  in  its  passage  a  ticking  noise  resembling  that  of  the  clock. 

93.  John  Maelzel,  born  1792,  who  brought  the  instrument  into  public  notice, 
hosed  his  scale  on  the  division  of  time  into  minutes,  dividing  it  into  168  degrees, 
taking  40,  to  represent  the  slowest,  and  208,  the  quickest  movement.  Thus, 
when  the  speed  of  a  piece  of  music  requires  an  average  rate  of  sixty  quarter-notes 
per  minute,  the  regulator  is  set  to  60  on  the  graduated  scale,  thereby  causing  the 
pendulum  to  make  that  number  of  strokes  in  the  above  time. 

93.  When  reference  is  made  to  the  metronome  to  determine  speed,  it  is  usual 
to  write  above  the  staff,  at  the  commencement  of  a  composition,  some  such  form 
as  the  following:  M.M.  J  =  80  —  meaning  Maelzel's  Metronome,  80  quarters  to 
the  minute. 

94.  This  plan  of  marking  speed,  presenting,  as  it  does,  a  concrete  idea,  is 
most  definite  and  satisfactory ;  since  it  determines  the  rate  with  a  mathematical 
accuracy  and  precision,  to  which  words  or  phrases,  however  carefully  selected, 
cannot  possibly  attain. 

95.  The  following  table  will  show  the  approximation  of  the  leading  speed 
terms  to  the  metronomic  scale ;  the  quarter  note  being  considered  the  unit : 


TERM?. 

PRONUNCIATION. 

MEANING. 

VABTINQ    PROM 

TO 

Largo. 

Larr-go. 

Very  slow. 

40 

CO 

Adagio. 

Ah-dah'jo. 

Slow. 

50 

60 

Larghetto. 

Larr-get-toh. 

Not  so  slow. 

60 

72 

Andante. 

Ahn-dahn'tay. 

Slow. 

72 

84 

Andantino. 

Ahn-dahntee-'no. 

Not  80  slow. 

84 

100 

Allegretto. 

Ahl-lay-gret-'toh. 

Moderately  fast. 

100 

120 

Allegro. 

Ahl-lay-'groh. 

Quick. 

120 

156 

Presto. 

Prays' toh. 

Very  quick. 

156 

180 

PrestisBimo 

Praya'tis-see-moh. 

Extremely  quick. 

180 

208 

MODIFICATIONS. 

96.    Ma  non  tboppo mah-n^n-trofpo  ^  Not  too  much  so. 

Ma  non  tanto mah-non-tohn  toh ) 

MoLTO mohVtoh Much  extremely. 

Stringkndo streenjen-doh .  )  Gradually  quicker 

AccELEEANDO ant-chay-lay  rann  do )  •'  ^ 


RUDIMENTS    OP    MUSIC.  15 

Callando,  or  cal kah-lahn'do T  Gradually      losing 

MoRENDO mo-ren'doh !      with   respect    to 

Smorzando smort-aahn' do [      tone    and    time. 

Perdendosi pair-den-do'' see J      Dying  away. 

Rallentando,  or  rail .  .rahl-len-tahn'do Gradually  slower. 

Ad  libitum  (Latin) (  ,       , 

A  PiACERE peeah-chayWay J        ^ 


97.  The  following  terms  are   added   to  speed  terms  to  indicate  the  style  in 
which  a  composition  is  to  be  played : 

AFFETUOSo ohf-fet-two^ SO Soft  in  expression. 

AGITATO ah-jee-taWtoTi Passion  and  fire. 

AMOROSO ah-mo-ro'' so Lovingly,  tenderly. 

CANTABiLE hihn-tah'be-lay Singing  style. 

CON  BRIO hm  bree'o With  brilliancy. 

CON  GIUSTO hm  joo'stoh lu  just  time. 

FURioso .foo-reoh' so Spiritedly,  furiously. 

PASTORALE pah-sto-rah'lay Simply. 

sosTENUT^j so-stay-noo'toh Well  sustained. 

SCHERZANDO sJcairt-sahn'doh Very  lightly,  playfully. 

viGOROso vee-go-ro^ so Force  and  vigor. 


EMBELLISHMENTS. 

98.  Composers  have  from  time  to  time  resorted  to  the  aid  of  auxiliary  notes 
to  embellish  their  melodies;  such  notes  are  known  under  the  general  term  of 
Graces,  or  Gkace  Notes. 


99.  All  such  graces  muse  be  played  in  the  smoothest  possible  manner,  and 
should  be  considered  as  analogous  to  those  ornaments  in  architecture  which, 
non-essential  to  the  strength  of  the  fabric,  are  still  of  great  importance  in  lending 
beauty  to  the  structure. 


100.  The  leading  graces  are  as  follows,  viz. : 

(1)  Appoggiatura Ap-poj-jee-ahtoo-ra To  lean,  or  dwell  on. 

(2)  AcciACATURA  Ak-hee-ah-lca-too-rah To  crush  down  on. 

(3)  Double  do 

(4)  Geupetto Oroo-pay-to A  group  of  notes. 

(5)  Mordente Mor-daunt Lightly. 

(6)  Turn,  -«- Round  the  essential  note. 

(7)  Shake Rapidly  alternating  notes. 

(8)  Passing  Shake "  "  " 

(9)  Chain  of  Shakes "  «'  " 


16 


RUDIMENTS    OF    MUSIC. 


Examples, 
appoogiatpka. 


On  the  dotted  note. 


:^E?=^ 


rp2=n== 


AS  played.  I  #£4==^=^^ ^i ^ZE:ii=V^gr±zH=sz^^=g= 


:^=P= 


ACCIACATCRA. 


-^—4 


— •-_ ^-— > — I 1 


EEEEc=^»zijfei=B=;= 


DOUblfi  ACCIACATrRA 


s 


Grupetto. 


-fl ^ ^ ^n SS ^ ;<^ 

z:»i::i^~mzzzzt^~*^~zi:izn—m-:ijt^—m^:zTs:-m ^~m. 

—I =»-^ »-Hf=-»— • — n_| _„^ — I — ^___._ff_  »»^— I- 


2--t^K 


:«=i:a=i:;: 


TrRK.  C&; 


MORDENTE. 


■^=m^'S=^--^-=^i=ii 


:=»r»]*»S»rg=i==e 


iC> 


'«; 


Shake. 


i=^==^Eg^^i===^=^i=s== 


:^»EgEg^^;E*'ggE^=^j^g;g;^g^ffg^^-^;g: 


P.\ssiNG  Shake. 


Chain'  of  Shakes. 


T-r-r- 


^ 


^i=^ 


i~3i4B 


|l=i«i»i.i»ia-»*»-V*»:CiJj 


±  UXUUJ 


e^^s 


^ 


ETTLES   FOR   PLAYING    THE   TORN. 

101.   (a)  When  the  note  succeeding  the  turn  note  is  one  degree  higher,  the  turn 
is  direct  a.nd  composed  of  four  notes,  i.  e.,  the  note  higher,   original 
note,  note  lower  and,  again,  original  note,  passing  thence  to  note  fol- 
lowing the  turn. 
(J)  Similar  to  a,  only  resting  longer  on  first  note  for  dot. 

(c)  "When  the  turn  note  is  dotted,  rest  on  that  note  S-16  of  its  value,  turn- 
ing three  notes;  t,  e.,  upper,  original  and  lower,  returning  to  original 
note,  giving  it  the  value  of  the  dot  before  proceeding. 

(d)  When  the  note  following  the  turn  note  is  one  degree  or  more  b^low, 


RUDIMENTS    OF    MUSIC. 


17 


102. 


the  turn  is  inverted.     Begin  turn  one  degree  lower,  original  note  one 
degree  higher,  returning  to  original  note  before  proceeding. 
{,/)  A  J,  or  1^,  written  above  the  turn   indicates  that  the  upper  note  of  the 
turn  must  be  played  sharp  or  flat;  when  written  below,  the  effect  is  on 
lowest  note. 

ABBREVIATIONS. 

Abbreviations  are  a  kind  of  musical  shorthand,  employed  to  express 
briefly  some  note  or  passage  previously  written. 


InfaU. 


Abbreviated.  — • 


103.  Repeats  are  a  species  of  abbreviation  employed  to  save  re-writing  one 
or  more  measures,  section,  or  even  a  whole  melody. 

104.  One  measure  to  be  re-written  may  briefly  be  expressed  by  an  oblique 
stroke  and  two  dots,  thus:  ^  I  i  j  i  _  a  half-measure,  the  oblique  stroke 
without  the  dots.  a  •'  *  • 

105.  Two  or  more  measures  to  be  re- written  may  be  conveniently  expressed  by 
a  repeat,  thus:  J_J_i_J_J  •  J — J  j    J  J-«CL      ' 


41 

106.  Should  the  last  measure,  or  more,  of  a  phrase,  section  or  subject  vary 
in  its  second  ending,  the  abbreviating  repeat  may  still  be  used  by  employing  prone 
parentheses  over  the  differing  measures.  In  the  first  case,  the  words  Prima 
VoLTA  (1st  time)  abbrev.  Ima  volta;  in  tbe-  second,  Seconda  Volta  (2d  time), 
abbrev:  ^dvoUa,  are  used  to  indicate  that  the  measures  included  under  1st  volta 
are  to  be  ommitted  on  reaching  them  the  second  time,  and  that  those  marked  2d 
volta  are  to  be  substituted  therefor,  thus : 

■""1  I  2d  volta  ' 


I8t  volta 


4i 


107.  The  Pause  sign  /tv  (Ital.,  pausa,  pah-oo-sah),  has  two  significations:  (1)  if 
written  over  a  note  or  rest,  such  may  be  protracted  at  pleasure ;  (2)  if  written 
over  a  double  bar,    ||,  it  signifies  the  point  of  finish. 

108.  The  words  Da  Capo  (dah  kah-po),  or  D.  C,  signify  a  repeat,  and  mean 
from  the  beginning. 

109.  When  the  words  al  fine  (a/d  fee-nay,  to  the  end),  are  added  to  the  fore- 
going, D.  C.  al  fine,  the  whole  phrase  means,  return  to  the  commencement  and 
play  to  the  sign/^  there  finish  : 


110.  The  sign  S  is  used  at  any  point;  but  if  it  be  required  to  return  to  that 
sign  instead  of  to  the  beginning,  the  words  Dal  Segno  (dahl  say-no,  from  the 
sign) ;  or,  D.  s.  are  used.     Al  fine  has  the  same  application  as  in  section  96: 

'    '    '  "-r* 


-*-UJ- 


-4U--' 


I     I 


^^' 


S.  al  Fine. 


18  RUDIMENTS    OF    MUSIC. 

EXPRESSION. 

111.  Expression  in  music  Is  of  two  kinds:  (1)  Mechanical,  (2)  A.rtistic. 

112.  Mechanical  Expression  demands  the  most  rigorous  attention  to  all  the 
details  entering  into  the  construction  of,  or  form  in  a  melody :  as  motive,  section, 
phrase,  sentence,  subject,  articulation,  accentuation  and  the  dynamical  effects  of 
Vf  PPi  /'  ff'>  ^^^- — ^'^  ^^  which  come  under  the  head  of  Phrasing.  Yet,  with  all 
this,  the  performance  may  be  unsatisfactory.  It  is  cold  and  stiff;  displays  intelli- 
gence but  no  feeling.     It  has  the  perfection  of  a  beautiful  statue,  but  no  life. 

113.  Artistic  Expression  is  the  vivifying  influence  which,  breathing  on 
music,  wakens  it  into  life.  The  possessor  of  this  attribute  has  genius.  Refine- 
ment of  taste  is  natural  to  him;  he  has  innate  the  faculty  of  imbuing  the  conven- 
tionalities of  music  with  an  illuminating  intelligence,  the  radiations  of  which 
reach  deeply  into  the  sympathies  of  his  listeners. 

In  point  of  fact,  he  identifies  himself  with  the  music,  his  soul  absorbs  it;  it 
permeates  his  being,  his  technical  skill  becomes  merely  the  vehicle  by  which 
what  he  feels  is  communicated  to  his  hearers.  Artistic  expression,  includes 
mechanical  accuracy,  but  idealizes  and  lifts  it  from  the  region  of  the  mortal  into 
the  sphere  of  the  divine. 

Vulgar  mannerism  is  the  opposite  of  artistic  expression  and  should  be  neither 
encouraged  nor  applauded. 

TONE. 

114.  The  power  to  produce  a  good  tone  lies  much  in  the  hands  of  the  per- 
former on  any  wind  instrument.  To  acquire  such  demands,  (1)  a  good  instrument 
wherein  all  the  essentials  exist,  as  perfect  tone,  flexible,  resonant,  brilliant  and 
sympathetic  tone  and  ease  of  blowing;  (2)  a  carefully  critical  method  of  practice, 
slow  sounds,  scales  and  intervals,  subordinating  agility  for  the  time  being  to  the 
task  of  building  up  the  embouchure  (lips  and  muscles  thereof);  (3)  cultivation  of 
the  aural  faculties  to  a  high  degree,  without  which  there  can  be  no  correct 
intonation ;  (4)  a  proper  method  of  inspiration  and  respiration,  breathing  freely 
by  direct  lung  action  and  bringing  the  whole  of  those  members  into  play,  not 
confining  the  breathing  to  the  upper  part  only. 

TAKING    BREATH. 

115.  The  lungs  should  be  well  inflated  with  air  before  commencing  to  play. 
Tlie  expenditure  should  be  economical,  and  the  production  of  the  best  possible 
result  from  the  smallest  amount  of  exertion  always  the  effort. 

Do  not  breathe  more  than  is  necessary.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  wrong  to 
continue  playing  until  the  lungs  are  thoroughly  exhausted.  Take  breath  noise- 
lessly at  convenient  points  in  the  performance,  numbers  of  which  present  them- 
selves, if  the  laws  of  phrasing  be  properly  attended  to.  Fall  hreath  should  inva- 
riably be  taken  during  a  long  silence,  or  rest;  Jialf  hreath  on  short  rests,  and 
quarter  hreath^  if  necessary,  after  motives,  sections,  phrases,  etc.     (See  par.  82). 


116.  Play  in  time !  On  all  occasions  when  practicing,  the  greatest  care  should 
be  taken  to  conform  to  a  certain  standard  of  time.  Scales  and  exercises  should 
be  practiced  in  strict  time   throughout,    at  slow  gait   until    the   fingers  become 


RUDIMENTS  OF  MUSIC.  19 

accustomed  to  their  work  and  the  physique  be  formed,  more  rapidly  as  the  diffi- 
culties are  overcome,  but  always  in  time,  with  due  regard  to  evenness  and  accent. 
Time  is  a  perception  that  must  be  cultivated,  and  which  can  only  be  brought  to 
perfection  by  most  rigid  care.  Form  the  habit  of  playing  in  time.  The  metro- 
nome is  a  useful  guide. 

TUNE. 

117.  The  perception  of  tune  cannot  be  too  sedulously  cultivated.  Without 
tune  all  other  efforts  are  futile.  Time,  tone  and  tune  are  the  leading  essentials  of 
all  musical  efforts,  but  the  greatest  is  tune.  Form  the  habit  of  judging  intervals 
mentally  correct,  then  you  can  produce  them  on  an  instrument;  but  not  otherwise. 
The  mind  must  be  educated  through  the  eye  and  the  ear  through  both.  Never 
play  with  another  performer  who  habitually  plays  out  of  tune;  his  faults  may 
affect  you  and  vitiate  your  powers  of  aural  discrimination. 

HOW    TO    TUNE    BAND    INSTRUMENTS. 

118.  Band  instruments,  to  obtain  perfect  balance  or  equality  of  tune,  should 
be  tuned  on  a  similar  method  with  that  adopted  by  the  piano  tuner;  i.  e.,  by  a 
series,  or  cycle  of  5ths,  thus: 


The  different  ways  of  fingering  should  be  tested,  or  compared  one  with  the 
other,  and  no  effort  spared  to  insure  the  most  accurate  intonation  throughout  the 
whole  band.     The  mere  effort  must  undoubtedly  have  a  good  effect. 

MUSICAL    LIBRARY. 

119.  All  grades  and  qualities  of  music  are  now  published  so  cheaply  that  there 
can  possibly  be  no  excuse  for  a  band  having  a  poor  repertoire.  It  is  a  fallacy, 
which  interested  publishers  and  men  of  vitiated  taste,  rampant  under  the  much 
abused  titles  of  composers  and  arrangers,  have  an  object  in  perpetuating,  to  sup- 
pose that  no  music  is  good  unless  difficult,  or  that  music  written  down  to  the 
capacity  of  the  youngest  band  must  necessarily  be  of  inferior  musical  worth.  On 
the  contrary,  there  is  much  difficult  music  which  is  simply  atrocious,  while  at  the 
same  time  many  simple  melodies  are  perfect  specimens  of  musicianly  writing,  and 
truly  enchanting. 

Band  music  should  be  selected  for  its  educating,  aesthetic  and  entertaining 
qualities.  It  cannot  be  educative  unless  it  be  well  written,  conforming  in  all 
particulars  to  the  grammar  of  music,  neither  aesthetic  unless  the  composer  be  a 
man  of  profound  feeling  and  refined  susceptibilities,  nor  entertaining  unless  the 
pedantic  rules,  fully  availed  of,  be  made  by  the  genius  of  the  writer  to  subserve 
his  purpose  of  producing  music  whose  parts  shall  be  interesting  to  all. 

So  called  popular  music  is  not  all  bad,  though  undoubtedly  true  art  would 
have  advanced  more  rapidly  had  much  of  it  never  been  written,  neither  are  the 


20  RUDIMENTS  OF   MUSIC. 

works  of  the  old  school  of  writers  uniformly  good.  There  have  been  good  and 
bad  at  all  times,  and  the  present  is  no  exception ;  but  the  object  should  be  to 
select  the  best  from  all  epochs^  Good  music,  old  or  new  always  wears  well;  it 
will  bear  repetition;  while  the  poor,  vulgar  variety  show  twaddle,  hashed  up  into 
fantasies,  not  only  becomes  wearisome  but  is  positively  deleterious.  Therefore, 
select  only  music  which  will  refine  the  mind  and  ennoble  the  feelings,  irrespective 
of  its  age,  or  nationality,  and  shun  that  which  administers  only  to  the  depraved 
taste  of  the  lower  and  enervated  order  of  amusement-seekers.  Cultivate  a  taste 
for  what  is  pure  and  good  in  art.  Do  not  trust  to  the  representations  or  remarks 
on  a  piece  of  music  in  any  publisher's  catalogue ;  but  rather  examine  for  your- 
selves whether  this  piece  or  that,  really  answers  your  purpose  in  being  good  and 
adaptable  to  the  capacity  of  the  band  at  large.  To  do  this  it  is  absolutely  neces- 
sary to  examine  the  piece  in  detail  and  as  a  whole.  Sample  parts  can  give  you 
no  idea,  or  at  least  a  very  feeble  one,  of  the  arrangement,  for  as  every  intelligent 
musician  knows  the  finest  compositions  may  be  utterly  ruined  by  an  incompetent 
transcrib  r,  while  an  indifferent  theme  may  be  made  quite  interesting  at  the  hands 
of  an  efficient  arranger. 

120  terms  applied  to  musical  compositions. 

Air  ( 

.  „,     ,   ,        ,1.       ■'.A  short  melody,  with  or  without  words. 

Aria  {ah-ree  ah).      (  •" 

Bravura  {brah-voo'rah).     A  composition  of  a  vigorous  and  brilliant  character. 

Canon.     An  imitative  composition  in  which  a  theme  proposed  and  continued  by  one 

is  followed  by  other  voices  or  instruments  in  stated  intervals  or  periods. 
Cantata  (kahn-tah'tah).     A   vocal   composition,   dramatic  in  character,   of  several 

movements. 
Cavatina  (hahvah-tee'nah).     An  operatic  air  occasionally  preceded  by  a  recitative. 
Concerto  (Jcon-chair'pjh).     A  composition  for  a  solo  instrument  with  accompaniment. 
CQ^^iC^Vi^wo{hJn■  chair-tee' noh).     Diminutive  of  concerto. 
Counterpoint.     L.terally  point  against  point.     The  art  of  adding  one  or  more  parts  to 

a  given  melody  (canto  fermo). 
Duo,  duet,  or  duetto.     Composition  in  two  parts,  with  or  without  accompaniment. 
Fugue,  fuga  (foo'gah).    A  flight.     Highest  style  of  canonical  writing.     A  subject  pro- 
posed in  one  part  and  answered  in  others  according  to  set  rules. 
Fantasia  (fan-tay—zee'ah).     A  work  in  which  the  composer  gives  full   liberty   to  his 

ideas. 
0PERA  (o-peh'rah).    A  musical  drama  for  stage  representation. 
Operetta  (o-peh-ray'tah).     Diminutive  of  opera. 

OraTorio  {or-ah-toh-ree'oh).     A  sacred  music-drama  usually  on  Scriptural  subject. 
Overture.     A  composition  of  prescribed  style,  prefixed  to  opera  or  oratorio. 
Quartet.     A  composition  in  four  parts. 
Quintev.     a  composition  in  five  parts. 

Solo.     A  composition  for  one  voice  or  instrument  with  or  without  accompaniment. 
Sonata  {soh-nah'tah).    A  composition  of  three  or  four  movements  in  which  must  be 

exhibited  a  unity  of  idea. 
Symphony.    (1)    A  short  introduction  or  interlude.    (3)    A  grand  composition  ideal, 

but  cohesive  in  nature,  consisting  of  several  contrasting  movements. 
Trio  (tree'oh).    In  three  parts;  or,  the  third  part,  as  in  a  march. 


RUDIMENTS   OF   MUSIC.  21 

SCHOOLS,    OR   METHODS    FOE   EVERT   INSTRUMENT. 

121.  For  the  convenience  of  those  who  have  the  laudable  ambition  of  studying 
their  instruments  from  the  stage  of  the  embryo  to  that  of  the  artist,  the  following 
list  of  very  excellent  methods  and  schools  has  been  prepared  : 

Cornet. — Langey,  Caussinus,  St.  Jacome,  Kosleck,  Arban,  Bonnisseau. 

Eb  Alto. — Langey. 

French  Horn. — Langey,  Franz,  Hoffmann,  Klotz. 

Slide  Trombone. — Langey,  Dieppo,  Wirth,  Bonnisseau. 

Baritone  or  Tenor. — Langey,  Hoffman,  Wirth. 

Tuba. — Langey,  Hoffman. 

Edphonion. — Langey,  Hamilton  (Eb,  Bb  or  C),  Bonnisseau. 

Flute  and  Piccolo. — Langey,  Daverges,  Chapman,  Devinnes,  Koehler,  Papp, 

Kummer,  Furstenau. 
Oboe. — Langey,  Barret,  Garnier,  Wieprecht,  Schubert. 
Clarionet. — Langey,    Klose,    Lazarus,    Baermann    (the    finest   work    ever 

written). 
Bassoon. — Langey,  Jancourt  and  Bordogny. 
Saxophone. — Hoffman. 

The  "Langey"  series  of  methods  contain  excellent  material  for  the  first 
two  years'  study.     They  embody  a  fine  collection  of  progressive  studies. 

transposition. 

122.  The  original,  or  pattern  scale  is  that  of  C,  in  major,  or  A,  in  minor. 
All  other  scales,  higher  or  lower,  are  simply  transpositions,  each  bearing  the  same 
proportion  in  its  component  parts  and  with  respect  to  the  key-note,  as  is  the  case 
in  the  normal  scales.  Now,  it  follows  from  this,  that  if  a  scale  may  be  placed  at 
a  different  pitch  without  injury  to  the  sequence  of  its  tones,  so  may  a  melody  or 
an  entire  composition.  Transposition  is  necessary  where  a  composition  goes  be- 
yond the  compass  of  voice  or  instrument  which  it  is  intended  shall  perform  it. 
The  orthodox  method  of  effecting  transposition  is  by  use  of  the  various  clefs,  and 
really,  in  reading  a  score  containing  a  number  of  parts  in  many  keys,  is  the  only 
practical  method  of  rendering  the  same  instantaneously  comprehensible  to  the  eye. 
But  ordinarily  the  simpler  method  is  by  numbers.  This  method,  necessarily,  im- 
plies a  knowledge  of  all  key  signatures,  and  of  course,  the  construction  of  the 
scale.  The  first  thing  to  be  done  is  to  decide  the  signature  of  the  key  into  '.vhich 
it  is  intended  to  transpose  the  music  under  consideration ;  next,  to  remember  the 
numerical  relation  of  each  tone  in  the  scale  to  the  new  key  note.  For  instance,  the 
scale  of  C  major,  without  sliarps  or  flats,  transposed  to  the  key  of,  say  F  major, 
with  one  flat,  would  present  the  following  appearance,  viz: 


c. 

D. 

E. 

F.           G. 

A. 

B. 

C. 

1. 

2. 

3. 

4.            5. 

6. 

7. 

8. 

F. 

G. 

A. 

B(flat)    C. 

D. 

E. 

F. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  figures  are  the  same  for  each  scale,  and  also,  that 
the  semi-tones,  indicated  by  ^^ — <  ,  occur  at  similar  points  in  each.  From  this 
it  will  be  evident,  that  in  transposition  of  melodies,  care  must  be  taken  to  preserve 


22 


RUDIMENTS  OP  MUSIC. 


the  same  relation  of  sounds  to  the  key  note  in  the  new  key,  as  appeared  in  the 
original.  In  other  words,  an  accidental  sharp,  flat,  or  natural  in  one  key,  must 
find  its  equivalent  in  the  other,  and  the  natural  order  of  key  tones  must  coincide 
in  the  copy  with  those  of  the  model.  The  following  transpositions  of  "The  Last 
Rose  of  Summer"  will  serve  to  show  tliis  method  of  transposition  and  make  the 
subject  clear. 


Transposition 

rlroin 
C 


The  subjoined  table  shows  the  note,  which,  on  transposing  treble  clef  instru- 
ments,  equals  C,  concert  pitch. 


as  the  Horn, 


DO 


as  the  Horn, 
Trampet,  or  Trumpet, &mis- 
Clarionet.    \;allea  E}y Picco- 
lo in  8ve. 


as  the  Clar' 
ionet,  Cor- 
net or  Tenoil  et  or  Cor 
net 


Afl 


as  the 
Clarion- 


as  the  Cornet 
Clarionet 
Horn,  or 
Trumpet. 

=5=- 


a^i  the 
Horn  or 
Trumpet. 


as  the 
Horn  or 
Trumpet. 


as  theClar'net 

HorD.  Cornel 

Trampet,  & 

miscalled 

F  Flute. 


"^ 


Normal  Pitch. 

as  the 

Oboe,  Flute.  Clarionet, 

or  Horn. 


THE   TONAL   SYSTEM. 


123.  The  entire  range  of  sounds  covered  by  the  instruments  of  band  or 
orchestra  may  be  stated  at  from  six  to  seven  octaves.  In  six  octaves  the  names  of 
sounds  will  repeat  themselves  six  times,  and  so  on.  For  convenience  of  reference 
it  is  usual  to  uame  the  octaves  commencing  from  the  lowest,  as  Double  Great, 
Great,  small,  once  lined,  twice  lined,  three  lined,  etc.,  etc.  This  system  was 
introduced  in  Germany  during  the  sixteenth  century.     (See  table.) 


124.    The  instruments  in 
(3)  WiWD,  (3)  PEacossioN. 

Stringed  instrumenlsari)  subdirided  into,  (1),  Those 
bass.    13),  Thosb  plucked  oa  sraucs  with  fingers  n 

Wind  iDstrumeuts  are  subdivided   into  \1),   T& 


CO      D»      EE      FF     GO      AA 


CHART,   SHOWING   COMPASS   OF   INSTRUMENTS   IN   COMMON   USE. 

Band  and  Orchestra  may  be  divided  into  three  classes,  (1)  STKUia, 


WITH  A  BOW,  &&  violin,  viola,  violoncello  ; 
a-  harp,  guitar,  mandoline  and  piano. 
HOLE    UEEns,  OS    clariooBt    and  saX".    ( 


Percussion   instruments   may  be  divided  into,   (1),   Those  with  defina 
(3),  Tbose  with  indrfinable  tonks,  ae  snare  drum,  bass  drum,  cymbnls,  etc 
The  accomitauyiiig  table  givaa  the  name  aad  compass  of  instruments 


RGED9,  as  flute.    (4),  TnosK  hidb 
aLB  TONES,  as  tympani,  bells,  eto. 
ilyinuse: 
Thrice  LiKiD  ootatb.    _     .«».      c 


Okrat  Octavb. 


Shall  Octave. 


DOCBLB 

Orbat  Octavb. 

STRIKQ  INSTKUMENTS. 

WEND  IKSThCTHENTS. 

PERCUSSION  1N8TRUMEN   3.      | 

Played  with  bow. 

Compass. 

Played  with 
fljigerB. 

Compass. 

BE  ED. 

Without -Reed. 

Compose. 

Com 

]as8. 

DednUe 
Mofilcul  Tones. 

Com- 
pass. 

IndeQolte 

Koraloal. 

Actual 

KomlDfti. 

Actnal. 

Nominal. 

Actual. 

Actual. 

t  VlolIlL 

t  Viola. 

t  CeUo. 

t  Basa  8  otrloss. 

t  BasB  4  itrlDgB. 

otct 

Etofr 

gto|. 

eioc; 
cto^ 
GO  tog. 
EBUg. 

Piano. 
Harp. 

Mandoline, 
t  Guitar. 

eto  a. 

PFtod 
gto  eT 
fito^ 

Single. 

aar. 

Double. 

Flute.  Grand. 

Piccolo  0. 
(Often  called  D) 

(Correct  name  DJ, 

Flute  F. 
(Correct  name  Eb 

dtob 
dtoc 

dtobf 

^tor 

Jto^ 

Cornet  Eb- 
-       Bi. 

•  Alto      Eb. 

P. 

Baritone  Bb. 

(a  valves) 

Eupliouion  •■ 

(4  valvijS) 
Trombone  Alto 

••   Tenor  Jib 

Baas        Eb. 
(3  valve3) 

Biisa      BBIt 

FJtoc. 

(^  1 

m 

AAtogh 
EEbtog 

atoeb 
etob^ 
dtoab 
Atoeb 

Etobb 
BBbtobb 

AlOCb 
E  to  tb 
CJftog 
CStobb 
GGbtolw, 
EE  to  bK 

Glockenspiel. 

(Diatonic  Bcak-; 

Set  of  Bella. 

(Ciiromatlo  Sc. 

Tympaul,  hl^M 
"       low 

Ftoc 

Snare  drum 

Triangle 

cympals 

Whip. 

Sleigh  bells 

Nominal. 

Aoti 

Nominal 

Actual. 

Clarionet  A. 

Bb- 

0. 

Ei. 

•*  Alto  Eb- 

"  Baas  Eb. 

Saxophone. 
Soprano  Bb- 
Alto  Eb 

"     Tenor  Eb. 

"  Baritone  Eb. 

"  Baas  Eb- 

e  tot- 
do. 

btoeb 

do. 
btojb 

Cjt( 

gt 

Ot 
D 

Ut 
AA 

i- 

obb- 

Obb 

^. 

ot. 

odb 

Oboe. 
Bassoon. 

"    Contra. 

Sarrufiopbone,  Bb 

Alto  Eb 

Tenor  lib 

'•    Baritone  Eb 

"           Baaa  B, 

"    Contra  Baes 

Cor.  ADglalt  F. 

BBbtof 

do. 

do. 

do. 
Bto_f 
btol 

Vtof 
BBbto^b 

BBBbwr 

dtoa 
Atof 
Dtoa 

DDtof. 
etobj 

The  pitch  of  the  so-called  E|j  Pic- 
colo is  one  semitone  only  above  C. 
The  Instrumer  t  should  therefore  be 
called  the  D^  Piccolo.    The  fact  of 

has  occasioned  the  errorin  n  iming. 
Similarly  with  the  so-called  *■  Flute, 
which  being  only  a  minor  third 
higher  than  the  c.  or  concert  Flute, 
ehoold  be  called  "the  Ef,  Flnte.    Its 
lowest  sound,  however,  giving  con- 
cert f  has  led  to  the  mistaken  name 

No  definite  pitch  can  be  stated 
for  Olockeosplel.  or  Bells.    They 

but  usually  with  a  compass  of  iwo 

The  Cackoo  (bird)  usually  sings  a 

repreiaeui  the  voice  of  this  bird  has 
a  chromatic  slide,  by  which  It  can 
lie  put  in  any  key 

The  Tympani    innes  by  single 
DOiea;  increased  or  tiecreaseil  ten- 

a<lmltting  of  one  octave,  as  the 
UmiiatloQ  of  compass. 

The  compftsa  of  Hiring  iDBtraments.  marKedf,  l§  susceptible  of 
extension  by  the  ase  of  Hahmomcs.    "Katnral  harmoQlca  are  those 
proaaced  by  touching  certain  points  of  open  BtrlnRfl."    "Arttflclal 
barnionlca  are  »  be  obtained  very  dlattnctly  ihronghont  the  extent 
or  the  gamut,  by  menue  of  the  flrat  finger  ;  which,  firmly  pressed  up- 
OD  the  BtrlQg,  wbUe  the  other  Dngera  touch  It,  eervea  for  a  movable 

•  The  CO 
that  the  ■'  Pe 
etantly  lor  ot 

[opaBB,  n 
dal  ■'  ton 
cheatral 

3minal  a 
^of  aU 
effects. 

id  actnal,  here  given  for  Alio,  applies  also  te  French  Horn,  with  the  exception          the  following  keys  :  Bb  low.  C.  D,  Elr.  En,  F.  G.  Ab,  AH,  Bb  high,  and  C  high.    Trumpets  are  also. used,  stand- 
valves  on  the  latter  are  more  or  less  aoceBsible.  many  of  them  being  used  con-           ing  in  keys  even  more  varied  than  those  of  the  French  Horn,  having  crooks  and  slides  for  each  chromatic 
French  Horns  have  a  series  of  crooks,  by  which  they  may  be  pitched  in  any  of          semitone,  from  Ab  low  ap  to  Ab  high.     The  Eb  Trumpet  is  pitched  on©  octave  lower  tlian  Eb  Comet 

Copyright,  1887.  by  Cabl  Fisoubr.  New  Toft                                                                                                                                                                                           ii 

A  COURSE  OP 

HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION 

SPECIALLY   DESIGNED   FOR 

SELF-INSTRUCTION. 

Bv  John   Bernard   Logier. 

THE   COMMON   CHORD. 

The  Musical  Scale  may  be  compared  to  aa  -Alphabet,  and  a  Chord  may  there- 
fore be  ccnsidered  as  a  word  in  the  language  of  music.  A  combination  of  letters 
selected  from  the  alphabet  forms  a  word;  a  combination  of  sounds  selected  from  the 
scale  forms  a  chord. 

Thus,  if  we  select  the  1st,  3d  and  5th  from  any  scale  and  write  them  over  each 
other  (as  in  the  following  example)  the  combination  of  these  sounds  will  form  a  chord, 
usually  called  a  common  chord.*  If  this  chord  be  played  so  that  the  sounds  are  heard 
simultaneously,  the  effect  upon  the  ear,  with  respect  to  music,  will  be  very  like  that 
produced,  with  respect  to  language,  by  pronouncing  a  word  after  having  spelled  it; 
thus,  Man,  Man. 

The  Common  Chord  extracted  from,  the  Scale. 

Ex.  I. 

Whatever  Commjon  Chord  we  propose  to  write,  let  us  (in  order  that  it  may  be 
clearly  understood)  first  write  the  scale  of  the  kev  note  of  that  chord  with  the  necessary 
sharps  or  flats;  and  then  selecting  the  1st,  3d  and  5th  sounds,  place  them  each  over 
the  other,  as  above. 

The  Common  Chord  of  A  extracted  from  the  Scale. 

Ex  2   F#=1|^^^^=Hh        --=^=^=^ ^  ^ — --^ 

^J  1  i  3  *  G  6  7  S 

To  the  combination  shown  in  the  preceding  example  may  at  any  time  be  added 
theSlh  (or  octave),  it  being  merely  a  repetition  of  the  1st,  thus: 

Common  Chord  of  F. 

Ex.  3. 

These  examples  (it  will  be  understood)  are  only  specimens  of  Common  Chords,  showing  the  manner 
of  their  construction;  it  is  not  expected  that  the  pupil  should  rest  satisfied  with  these  alone  as  practice; 
on  the  contrary,  he  should  write  the  scales  with  single  and  double  sharps  and  flats  through  all  the 
keys,  and  extract  the  chords  according  to  the  rule. 

*  This  is  the  combination  most  (Jomwion^y  met  with.  See  also  Kx.  48,  where  this  combination 
(as  consisting  of  the  harmonics)  is  shown  to  be  common  to  every  musical  soand. 


26 


HARMONY    AND    COMPOSITION. 


Whilst  proceeding  with  these  exercises  let  the  pupil  audibly*  pronounce  each 
chord,  commencing  always  with  the  lowest  note;  then  the  3d,  and  after  that  the  5th  ; 
thus:  the  chord  of  C  is  C,  E,  and  G.  Let  him  not  say  C,  O,  and  E;  for  by  so  doing 
he  will  inevitably  frustrate  a  very  important  object  here  contemplated,  and  which  in 
due  time  shall  be  explained.  Let  the  common  chord,  therefore,  at  all  times,  without 
any  exception  whatever,  be  pronounced  in  this  manner,  laying  a  peculiar  emphasis  on 
the  word  and,  preceding  the  last  note. 

Having  attained  sufiBcient  facility  in  extracting  the  common  chord  from  the 
scale,  the  pupil  may  write  the  chord  from  reflection  only;  thus,  for  instance,  if  the 
chord  of  E  be  required,  let  him  write  E,  and  then  at  once  add  the  3d  and  5th  to  it  as 
they  arise:  E,  G,  and  B  (as  at  I). 


Ex.  4. 


But  as  the  key  of  E  requires  four  sharps,  it  follows,  of  course,  that  the  G  in  that 
chord  must  have  a  sharp  placed  before  it  (as  at  II.);  thus  the  chord  of  E  is  not  E,  G 
and  B,  but  E,  G^  and  B.  The  same  rule  must  be  observed  with  respect  to  all 
common  chords. 

BASS  OF  THE  COMMON  CHORD. 

Every  chord  is  supposed  to  have  a  bass,  called  the  fundamental  bass,  upon  which 
it  is  founded,  and  which  is  always  the  same  as  the  first  note  of  the  scale  from  which 
the  chord  is  extracted.  Thus  the  bass  to  the  chord  of  C  is  C.  The  bass  to  the  chord 
of  D  is  D,  etc.,  etc. 

Henceforth  the  bass  notes  of  the  chords  shall  be  written  on  a  separate  staff,  thus: 


Ex.5. 


=^i 


W 


--^9^ 


It  has  already  been  shown  that  the  8th  sound  of  the  scale  is  but  a  repetition  of  the 
1st;  and,  as  the  bass  may  now  be  considered  as  representing  1,  we  shall  in  future  figure 
the  chord  8,  3,  5,  as  exhibited  in  the  preceding  example. f 

It  will  be  of  very  great  advantage  to  the  pupil,  in  the  progress  of  his  future  studies,  that  he  shonld 
be  able  to  write  correctly  and  without  hesitation  any  common  chord  proposed  to  him ;  and  he  is  strongly 
recommended  to  make  himself  perfectly  master  of  this  by  frequently  writing  common  chords  on 
basses  which  he  may  propose  to  himself;  in  pronouncing  them,  let  him  be  careful  to  follow  the 
instructions  already  given  for  that  purpose,  remembering  the  word  "and"  before  the  last  note  of  the 
chord. 

The  Three  Potitions  of  the  Common  Chord. 

This  chord  consists  of  three  sounds  beside  the  bass,  viz.,  8,  3,  5.  These  thre« 
sounds  are  written  over  each  other,  and  may  change  their  situations  in  such  a  manner 
that  each  may  alternately  appear  in  the  upper,  lotoer  or  middle  part  of  the  chord. 

*  This  makes  a  forcible  impression  on  the  memory. 

+  Should  it  be  asked  why  we  do  not  figure  the  several  notes  of  the  chord  according  to  their  reai 
distance  from  the  bass,  viz.,  8,  10, 12,  as  in  Ex.  5,  Y  ?— Answer.  As  the  8th  is  a  repetition  of  the  let, 
BO  the  10th  is  a  repetition  of  the  3d,  and  the  li^th  a  repetition  of  the  5th,  etc.,  etc. 


HARMONY    AND    COMPOSITION. 


37 


Heretofore  the  5th  has  always  appeared  in  the  upper  part;  and  when  this  is  the 
case,  we  say  the  chord  is  in  the  2d  position.  When  the  8th  is  in  the  upper  part,  the 
chord  is  in  the  3d  positicMj;  and  when  the  3d  is  in  the  upper  part,  it  is  in  the  Ist 
position.* 

2d  poBit.ion.       Sd  position.       Ist  position.      2d  position.       8d  position,    let  position. 


Ex.6. 


Having  shown  the  coustruclion  of  iLe  common  chord  as  extracted  from  the 
Diatonic  Scale,  and  also  its  three  positions,  we  shall  proceed  to  point  out  the  method 
of  employing  it  in  composition. 

First,  let  us  explain  the  distinction  between  Melody  and  Harmony.  Although 
both  owe  their  origin  to  the  same  source,  and  are  inseparably  united,  yet  they  require 
to  be  clearly  distinguished. 

Melody  i»  a  succession  of  single  sounds,  ascending  or  descending,  thusf: 

Ex.  7. 


Earmony  is  a  succession  of  combined  sounds  or  chords,  ascending  or  descending, 
as  in  the  following  example,  which  exhibits  a  portion  of  the  preceding  melody 
harmonized: 

(a.)        ,1  ^   _  (6.) 

Ex.8. 


A  scale  has  been  compared  to  an  Alphabet,  a  chord  to  a  word;  and  if  we 
pursue  this  analogy  a  little  further  we  may  compare  a  succession  of  chords  to 
a  sentence.  Now,  between  the  various  words  which  compose  a  sentence  there  must 
necessarily  subsist  some  connection,  in  order  to  produce  sense;  so  it  is  with  a  succession 
of  chords;  there  should  subsist  some  connection  in  order  to  produce  a  proper  effect. 
The  connection  required  is,  that  in  an  immediate  succession  of  any  two  chords  there 
shall  be  found  one  sound  that  is  common  to  them  both.  J 

In  the  preceding  Example,  at  a,  we  perceive,  by  the  curved  lines,  the  links  which 
constitute  the  chain  of  harmony.  In  order  that  the  pupil  may  form  a  ]ust  estimate  of 
the  necessity  of  this  connection  in  a  progression  of  chords,  the  same  melody  is  exhibited 
at  b,  accompanied  by  chords  indeed,  but  without  any  of  the  connecting  links  above 
ineiitioned.     Let  the  pupil  play  these  two  exercises  and  compare  the  different  efifects. 

It  shall  now  be  shown  how  a  melody  may  be  harmonized  so  that  this  necessary 
connection  of  the  chords  shall  be  effected,  and  that  each  note  of  the  melody  shall  have 
its  proper  chord  and  the  whole  its  appropriate  harmony. 

*  How  this  arrangement  has  arisen  will  be  seen  at  Ex.  48. 

t  The  whole  of  the  Diatonic  Scale  is  a  melody,  and  as  such  it  will  be  treated  when  we  begin  to 
harmonize 

%  There  are,  however,  exceptions  to  this  general  rule,  which  shall  be  explained  in  the  proper 
place 


S8 


HARMONY    AND    COMPOSITION. 


The  first  step  towards  this  object  is  to  discover  the  proper  fundamental  basses;  but 
how  is  this  to  be  done  ?  The  melody  itself  shall  point  out  the  way,  and  the  basses 
being  thus  found  they,  in  return,  shall  furnish  the  harmony  with  which  that  melody 
shall  be  accompanied. 

DISCOVERY   OF   THK   FUNDAMENTAL    BASSES. 

Let  us  take  the  scale  as  a  theme  to  be  harmonized;  and,  in  order  to  find  the 
fundamental  basses,  let  us  write  over  the  notes  the  figures  8,  5,  3,  as  in  the  following 
example  :* 


Ex.  9. 


1 


The  figure  8,  placed  over  the  first  note,  points  out  the  bass  to  be  an  octavp,  or 
eight  notes  below;  the  5  over  D  discovers  the  bass  of  this  note  to  be  a  fifth  below;  and 
so  on  with  the  rest,  which,  when  completed,  will  appear  thusf: 

:&: 

Ex.  10. 


In  the  preceding  example  it  will  be  perceived  that  there  are  only  three  bass  notes; 
C  is  employed  four  times,  G  twice,  and  P  twice.  Each  of  these  three  fundamental 
basses  has  its  peculiar  name. 

The  first  is  called  the  Tonic,  which  is  always  the  same  as  the  tone  which  gives  the 
name  to  the  scale;  for  instance,  the  preceding  example  is  in  the  scale  or  key  of  C,  there- 
fore the  tonic  is  C. 

The  second  fundamental  bass  is  called  the  Dominant.  It  is  the  same  as  the  fifth 
sound  in  the  ascending  scale,  and  may  easily  be  found  by  repeating  the  chord  of  the 
Tonic,  as  the  last  note  of  that  chord  (viz.,  the  fifth)  is  always  the  Dominant.  Thus 
the  chord  of  C  is  C,  E,  "and"  G.      G  is  therefore  the  Dominant  to  C. 

Again,  the  chord  of  D  is  D,  Fj,  "and"  A. 

Q.  What  is  the  Dominant  to  D  ?— A 1 

Q.  Why?— Because  A  is  the  last  (or  5th)  note  of  the  chord  of  D. 

And  thus  may  be  found  the  Dominant  to  any  key.t 

The  third  fundamental  bass  is  called  the  Suh- Dominant;  it  is  the  fourth  note  of 
the  ascending  scale,  and  may  easily  be  discovered  and  recollected,  as  being  a  whole 
tone  under  the  Dominant. 

If  the  Dominant  be  G,  what  is  the  Sub-Dominant?— P. 
Why?— Because  F  is  a  whole  tone  below  G  the  Dominant. 

By  way  of  exercise,  the  basses  to  other  scales  should  now  be  found  according  to  the  same  method 
as  in  Ex.  23. 

*  A  reason  for  this  arrangement  will  be  seen  in  the  introduction  to  Modulation;  Ex.  49  and  50, 
t  The  simplicity  of  this  method,  and  the  ease  and  certainty  with  which  the  Pupil  is  thus  enabled 

at  once  to  discover  the  true  basses  to  the  scale,  and  the  harmony  subsequently  arising  from  them 

will  be  still  better  appreciated  when  he  arrives  at  the  harmonization  of  melodies. 

X  The  pupil  will  now  see  the  motive  for  urging  the  necessity  of  pronouncing  the  chord  as  stated 

Ex.  IG,  and  of  emphasising  the  word  and\  for,  had  the  common  chord  been  pronounced  in  any  other 

way,  this  result  could  not  have  been  attained. 


HARMOi^Y    AND    COMPOSITION. 


29 


The  pupil  having  been  thus  shown  how  to  find  the  proper  fundamental  basses  to 
the  scale,  he  shall  now  be  taught  which  of  the  intervals  of  the  scale  are  accompanied 
by  the  Tonic,  which  by  the  Dominant,  and  which  by  the  8vb- Dominant. 

First  let  him  write  a  scale  and  add  the  fundamental  basses  as  already  directed; 
then  let  him  remove  the  figures  8,  5,  8,  and  write  in  their  places  the  figures  from  1  to 
8  over  the  different  int.    vals  of  the  scale,  thus: 


Tonic. 


Dominant.  Tonic.  SubhDominant.Tonic.Sub-dominant. Dominant.  Tonic. 


Ex.  II. 


Having  done  so,  he  will  discover 

The  first  ruU  oj  Earmonizing. 

The  Ist,  Sd,  5th  and  8th  of  the  scale  are  accompanied  by  the  Tonic, 
The  2d  and  Ith,  "  "  by  the  Dominant. 

The  Ath  and  6th,  "  "  by  the  Sub-Dominant, 

To  show  the  mode  of  exercising  upon  this  rule,  let  us  take,  for  instance,  the 
Male  of  A. 

Our  first  inquiry  must  be: 

What  are  the  names  of  the  three  fundamental  basses  accompanying  this  scale? 

Tho  key  being  A,  the  Tonic  must  be  the  same  A. 

The  chord  of  A  is  A,  C#  and  E;  the  Dominant  therefore  is  E. 

A  whole  tone  below  E  is  D;  the  Sub-Dominant  therefore  is  D. 

Having  written  the  scale  of  A,  we  proceed  to  write  the  basses  according  to  the 
Above  rule,  reasoning  thus: 

A      the  first  of  the  scale,  is  accompanied  by  the  Tonic  A. 

by  the  Dominant  B. 

by  the  Tonic  A. 

by  the  Sub-Dominant  D, 

by  the  Tonic  A. 

by  the  Sub-Dominant  D. 

by  the  Dominant  E. 

by  the  Tonic  A. 
By  this  process  we  have  l-onnd  the  proper  basses  to  the  scale  of  A. 

-f^z ' — ^^~  "*~ 


B 

the  second 

a 

the  third 

D 

the  fourth 

E 

the  fifth 

FS 

the  sixth 

G5 

the  seventh 

A 

the  eighth 

Tonic    Dominant    Tonic.    Sub-dominant.Tonic.Sub-dominant.Dominant Tonic. 


Pursuing  this  method,  the  pupil  may  find  the  fundamental  basses  to  all  the  scales 
as  far  as  six  sharps  and  six  flats,  making  use  in  future  of  what  is  called 

The  Signature. 

This  is  the  sign  by  which  the  key  is  known,  i.  e.,   the  number  of  flats  or  sharps 


30  HARMONY    AND    COMPOSITION. 

belonging  to  it  being  placed  at  the  commencement  of  each  staff,  instead  of  being  written 
before  each  note. 


a^^^^l^fe^ 


It  will  be  admitted  that  without  a  certain  degree  of  ready  practice  it  is  in  vain  to 
expect  much  advancement.  Unless  the  student  of  arithmetic  have  the  multiplication 
table  at  his  fingers'  end,  he  will  make  no  great  progress;  so  it  is  precisely  with  respect 
to  portions  of  the  subject  on  which  we  have  been  treating.  For  instance,  the  common 
chord  of  any  note,  with  the  sharps  or  fiats  necessarily  belonging  to  it,  should  be  pro- 
nounced with  as  much  readiness  as  a  schoolboy  would  answer  the  question  how  many 
are  four  times  four?  How  easy  it  is  for  him  to  impress  upon  his  memory  the  sharps 
and  flats,  so  as  at  all  times,  quickly  and  unhesitatingly,  to  declare  their  number  and 
order  in  any  key!  He  needs  but  to  extend  his  hand  and  he  will  behold  the  whole 
system;  afterwards  to  forget  them  is  utterly  impossible.  More  of  this  by  and  by.  We 
shall  here  endeavor  to  bring  to  the  recollection  of  the  pupil  what  he  has  already  learned, 
and  suggest  the  following  mode  of  proposing  questions  which  he  is  supposed  to  answer 
without  hesitation. 

Q.  Of  how  many  sounds  consists  the  Diatonic  Scale? — Seven,  besides  the  8th,  which  is  a  repeti- 
tion of  the  Ist. 

Q.  Where  are  the  half  tones  found'?— Between  the  3d  and  4th  and  between  the 7th  and  8tli. 

Q.  How  many  sharps  in  the  liey  of  A?— Three. 

Q.  What  notes  are  sharp?— FJf,  CJ  and  GJ. 

Q.  What  is  the  chord  of  E?— E,  GJf  and  B. 

Q.  How  many  fundamental  basses  are  there! — 

Q.  What  are  their  names? — 

Q.  Tell  me  the  Tonic,  Dominant  and  Sub-Dominant  in  the  key  of  A?— The  Tonic  is  A,  the 
Dominant  E  and  the  Sub-Dominant  D. 

Q.  What  notes  of  the  scale  are  accompanied  by  the  Tonic? — The  1st,  3d,  5th  and  8th. 

Q.  What  by  the  Dominant?— The  2d  and  7th. 

Q.  What  by  the  Sub-Dominant?— The  4th  and  6th. 

The  above  form  of  question  and  answer  tends  chiefly  to  exercise  the  memory. 

The  following  mode  brings  into  action  the  reflective  faculties;  it  introduces  a 
mental  exercise  which  will  be  found  highly  interesting  and  useful  in  after  life  for  other 
purposes  than  the  mere  advancement  in  the  science  of  music;  it  is  calculated  to  stimu- 
late the  reasoning  powers,  compelling,  as  it  were,  the  mind,  before  it  arrives  at  a 
satisfactory  conclusion,  to  pass  through  certain  evolutions  and  reflections. 

Supposing  the  key  to  be  F,  what  is  the  bass  to  E? 

{Reflection  of  the  pupil). — In  the  key  of  F,— E  is  the  7th  of  the  scale.— The  7th  of  the  scale  is 

accompanied  by  the  Z>omi«an<— The  Dominant  in  the  key  of  F  is .    Here  mentally  repeat  the 

chord  of  F,  thus,  F,  A,  "and"  C.  The  last  note  of  the  chord  i«  the  Dominant,  therefore  C  is  the  bass 
tj  E.    This  process  should  be  observed  at  all  times  when  the  Dominant  is  to  be  discovered. 

Suppose  the  key  is  Eb— what  is  the  bass  to  C? 

(Reflection  of  the  pupil).— In  the  key  of  Eb— C  is  the  6lh  of  the  scale.— The  6th  of  the  scale  is 
accompanied  by  the  Sub- Dominant.— The  Sub-Dominant  is  Ab— therefore  .4b  is  the  bass  to  C. 

Suppose  the  key  is  B,  what  is  the  bass  to  Cjf? 

(Reflection  of  the  pupil). -The  key  is  B— CJf  is  the  second  of  the  scale— the  second  of  the  scale  is 
accompanied  by  the  Dominant— the  Dominant  in  the  key  of  B  is  FJf— therefore  Ft  is  the  bass  to  CJ. 

But  what  will  be  the  bass  to  that  Cjf  if  we  change  the  key  to  D?— A  Q.  Why? 

Supppose  we  change  the  key  to  G,  what  then  will  be  the  bass  to  CjJ?— No  bass  can  then  be  found 
to  CJ,  because  CjJ  is  not  one  of  the  notes  of  the  scale  of  G. 

The  pleasing  and  attractive  form  in  which  the  pure  elementary  principles  of  har- 


HARMONY    AND    COMPOSITION. 


31 


moRy  and  composition  are  thus  conveyed  to  the  pupil  is  calculated  not  only  to  accom« 
plish  the  object  proposed  but  also  to  materially  improve  the  understanding. 

To  Find  the  Fundamental  Basses  to  Melodies. 

Hitherto  we  have  taken  only  the  ascending  scale  as  a  Theme  or  Melody,  to  which 
we  have  added  the  fundamental  basses;  we  will  now  depart  from  the  rigid  observance 
of  that  plan  and  select  such  intervals  of  a  scale  aa  shall,  in  their  progression,  form  a 
pleasing  and  effective  melody. 

Let  us  suppose  that  the  pupil  is  required  to  find  the  proper  basses  to  the  fol- 
lowing: 


In  order  to  accomplish  this  it  will  be  necessary  to  enter  upon  the  following  reflections: 
"The  melody  is  in  the  key  of  C,  and  as  E,  the  first  note  in  the  melody,  is  the  8d 
of  the  scale,  I  shall  write  the  figure  3  over  that  note."     As  D  is  the  2d  of  the  scale,  I 
shall  write  the  figure  3  over  that  note;  and  so  with  all  the  rest,  thus* 


"b"P 


S 


M=p=r 


:?= 


g 


^ 


The  next  step  will  be  to  call  tu  mind  the  three  fundamental  basses  of  that  keyj  thus: 
The  key  is  C,  therefore 

The  Tonic  is  C,  which  accompanies  the  1st,  8d,  5th  and  8th  of  the  scale. 

The  Dominant  is  G,  "  "  2d  and  7th  of  the  scale. 

The  Sub-Dominant  is  F,  "  "  4th  and  6th. 

Let  the  pupil  now  write  the  fundamental  basses  according  to  this  rule  (as  laid 
down  in  Ex.  11),  and  the  melody  thus  accompanied  will  appear  as  in  the  following 
example: 


Ex.  14. 


Q.  Why  is  D  (the  2d  note)  accompanied  by  Q  t— Becanee  the  2d  of  the  scale  la  accompanied  by 
the  Dominant,  and  the  Dominant  is  G. 

Q.  Why  is  c  (the  3d  note)  accompanied  by  O  T— Becanse  the  first  of  the  scale  is  accompanletf 
by  the  Tonic,  and  the  Tonic  is  C. 

Q.  Why  is  A  (the  10th  note  in  the  Melody)  accompanied  by  P  t— Becanse  A  Is  the  6th  of  the 
scale,  and  the  6th  is  accompanied  by  the  Snb-Dominant. 

Q.  Why  is  F  (the  11th  note)  accompanied  by  F  t— Because  F  is  the  4th  of  the  scale,  and  the  4th 
la  accompanied  by  the  Sab-Dominant. 

After  having  acquired,  by  sufficient  practice,  a  readiness  in  distinguishing  what 
interval  of  the  scale  each  note  is,  the  pupil  may  dispense  with  writing  the  figures  over 
them,  and  at  once  write  the  bass  under  each  note  as  he  proceeds  with  the  examinationj 
as  thus,  with  the  following  Ex. 

We  perceive  this  melody  is  in  the  key  of  P:  by  the  signature — one  flat. 
The  first  note,  F,  is  the  8th  of  the  scale,  and  requires  the  Tonic  F. 


32 


HARMONY    AND    COMPOSITION. 


The  following  note,  G,  is  the  2nd  of  the  scale,  and  requires  the  Dominant  C. 
The  next  note,  F,  is  the  8th  of  the  scale,  and  requires  the  Tonic  F. 
ll's  the  7th  of  the  scale,  and  requires  the  Dominant  C. 


Sx.  15.  ) 


That  the  pupil  may  become  perfectly  familiar  with  this  subject,  and  attain  the 
ntmost  facility  in  writing  the  fundamental  basses  to  any  given  melody,  he  is  here  pre- 
sented with  a  variety  of  themes  in  different  keys,  which,  having  first  served  as  exer- 
cises similar  to  the  above,  may  afterwards  be  fully  harmonized,  when  he  has  been  made 
acquainted  with  the  mode  of  adding  the  chords. 

Themes  for  Exercise  on  the  First  Rule  of  Harmonizing, 
Ko.  I. 


♦  ProgreMlon  of  the  meiody  from  the  6th  t«  the  rth  of  the  scale,  to  be  referred  to  tn  ■  fatare 
CxerelM. 


HARMONY    AND   COMPOSITION. 


33 


After  having  employed  all  the  aboTe  themes,  should  the  pupil  be  desirous  of 
farther  practice,  it  is  only  necessary  to  change  the  tignature  of  any  one,  by  which  the 
intervals  of  the  scale  will  be  changed,  whilst  the  notes  themselves  remain  unchanged: 
and  thus  a  new  Exercise  is  produced. 


Ex.  16. 

rf^r-rl 

•          a 

~f-3 

■    • 

-r^—f^— 

•          s 
-P' ^-n— 

a          • 

«          t 

3 

UL 

-^h±iiX-i — [— 

n    1  J 

T  1 

J=l= 

^=t= 

^=^ 

At  II  the  theme  is  in  the  key  of  C.  Let  us  suppose  the  pupil  to  have  already 
accompanied  it  by  its  proper  fundamental  basses,  viz.,  C,  G  and  P.  If  he  afterwards 
changes  the  signature  as  at  UI,  the  key  will  then  be  A;  the  fundamental  basses  ol 
which  are  A,  E,  and  D. 

The  signature  being  thus  changed,  the  same  melody  will  require  other  fundamen- 
tal basses;  for  instance,  the  note  E  at  II  is  the  third  of  the  bcale  of  C;  C  (the  Tonic)  is 
therefore  its  proper  bass.  The  same  note  E,  however,  at  III,  is  the  fifth  of  the  scale 
of  A,  and  requires  A  (the  Tonic)  as  its  bass. 

Q.  How  is  F  (in  the  4th  bar)  at  II  accompanied?— A.  By  F  the  Sab-Dominant. 
Q.  Why  f— A.  Becaase  F  is  the  4th  of  the  scale  of  C. 

Q.  How  is  F  in  the  4th  bar  at  in  accompanied?— A.  By  the  Snb- Dominant  D. 
Q.  Why? — A.  Because  F  in  this  example  is  the  6th  of  the  scale  of  A. 

A  further  variety  of  melodies,  on  this  and  and  all  the  subsequent  roles,  may  be  found,  if 
desired,  in  a  small  work,  "Themes  for  Exercise  in  Harmony,"  by  the  Author. 

It  has  been  stated,  previously,  that  the  melody,  by  means  of  the  figures  8,  6,  3, 
points  out  the  way  by  which  we  discover  the  fundamental  basses,  and  that,  in  return^ 
the  fundamental  basses  will  point  out  the  harmony  to  the  melody. 

To  exemplify  this,  we  shall  again  resume  the  Diatonic  Scale,  as  it  exhibits,  in  a 
prominent  degree,  the  harmony  in  a  connected  and  combined  form. 

The  scale  having  been  written  with  its  fundamental  basses  (as  in  Ex.  1 1),  let  the 
pupil  add  the  remaining  intervals  of  the  chords  which  are  indicated  by  those  basses. 


Ejc  17. 


The  first  bass  note  is  C;  the  chord  of  C  is  C,  E  and  G.  Here  C  the  8th  (one  ol 
the  intervals  of  the  chord)  is  already  in  the  melody;  we  have  therefore  only  to  add  the 
8rd  and  5th;  these  intervals  should  be  written  immediately  under  the  note  of  the  mel- 
ody, and  thus  the  chord  will  be  complete;  always  taking  care  that  the  note  which  be- 
longs  to  the  melody  be  the  highest  note,  and  to  write  the  other  notes  of  the  chord  un- 
derneath as  near  to  it  as  possible. 

To  proceed;  let  the  pupil  point  to  the  second  bass  G,  and  (having  pronounced  the 
chord  G,  B  and  D)  write  first  the  note  G,  then  B,  and  (as  the  D  is  already  in  the  mel- 
ody) merely  point  to  the  note  and  say  "D."  By  a  close  observance  of  this  method, 
all  mistakes  will  be  avoided. 

If  we  examine  the  above  Ex.  17,  we  shall  perceive  that,  by  adding  to  the  melody 
Uie  chords  pointed  out  by  the  fundamental  basses  a  progression  of  chord*  is  produced: 


84 


HARMONY    AND    COMPOSITION. 


M  each  of  these  chords  consistB  of  foar  notes,  four  rotes  of  note*  are  thus  produced:  and. 
as  each  roto  forms  a  distinct  melody,  four  melodies  appear,  each  different  in  its  pro- 
gression, but  all  unitinj?  together,  forming  a  pleasing  combinatton  of  harmony.  Thus:— 

Soprano  or  Treble. 


i 


Alto,  Coanter  Tenor,  or  Second  Treble. 
n::= 


Tenor. 


Bass. 


IL 

Em.  18. 
III. 

rv. 


In  the  foregoing  Ex.  the  four  distinct  melodies,  being  written  each  upon  • 
separate  staff,  is  called  a  harmony  in  four  parts. 

The  dots,  as  they  appear  in  the  upper  staff  at  I,  mark  the  place  from  which  the 
notes  composing  the  other  parts  at  II  and  III  have  been  taken.* 

CONSECUTIVK  FIFTHS  AKD  EIGHTHS. 

Let  us  return  to  Bx.  17,  and  particularly  examine  the  chain  of  connection  between 
the  chords  as  marked  by  the  curved  lines. 

It  will  be  perceived  that  the  G  in  the  first  chord  forms  a  part  of  the  second,  and 
that  the  same  note  forms  a  part  of  the  third  chord  also.  The  C  in  the  third  chord  i? 
the  connecting  link  with  the  fourth,  fifth  and  sixth;  but  no  connecting  link  is  found 
between  the  sixth  and  seventh. 

Here  thea  (according  to  what  has  been  observed  concerning  the  necessarr 
connection  of  chords)  the  sense  of  the  sentence  is,  as  it  were,  interrupted;  and,  OD 
being  played,  the  passage  will  produce  a  corresponding  effect  upon  the  ear. 

That  such  a  progression  of  harmony  is  incorrect  and  ought  to  be  avoided,  has  been 
already  noticed  in  the  observations  following  Ex.    8. 

At  the  6th  note  of  the  scale  in  Ex.  18,  we  find  (in  the  alto)  an  P  which  is  marked 
with  an  8,  as  being  the  eighth,  or  octave,  to  the  bass  note;  and  in  the  same  part  (the 
alto)  the  note  immediately  following  is  also  an  octave  to  the  bass  note.  These  are 
consecutive  octaves. 

At  the  6th  note  of  the  scale,  also,  we  find  (in  the  tenor)  a  C,  which  is  a  fifth  to  the 
bass  note;  and  in  the  snmepart,  immediately  following  is  also  a  fifth  to  the  bass  note. 
These  are  consecutive  fifths. 

*  Supposing  four  persons  to  sing  or  play  this  progression  of  harmony:  The  flrst  person  wonid 
«ing  all  the  highest  notes  of  the  chord  (which,  in  this  example,  form  the  seoUt  of  C.)  This  w«  call  the 
$r$t  part. 

The  second  voice  wonld  take  the  range  of  notes  next  underneath. 

The  third  voice  would  take  the  range  of  notes  next  above  the  bass. 

And  the  fourth  voice  would  take  the  base,  or  lowest  row. 

The  alto  and  tenor  parts,  aa  written  in  this  example,  are  not  intended  to  represent  the  real  pitch 
of  those  voices;  to  do  this,  wonld  require  a  different  arrangement,  calculated,  at  present,  only  tc 
puzzle  the  learner  and  obscure  the  subject.  For  the  same  reason  also,  their  peculiar  clefs  are  not 
introduced.    If  these  two  parts  be  played  an  octave  lower,  all  will  be  right. 

+  As  a  matter  of  course,  an  8th  and  a  5th  may  be  used  in  every  chord;  but  the  same  interval 
ooght  not  to  appear  twice  in  the  same  part  in  immediate  succession. 


HARMONY    AND    COMPOSITION. 


85 


TO  PEEVENT   CONSECUTIVE   OCTAVES. 

In  Ex.  19,  at  I,  are  consecutive  octaves.  Let  the  note  which  is  an  octave  in  the 
fimt  chord  be  continued  in  the  second  chord,  as  at  II,  and  that  note  will  then  become  ^ 
7Lh:  thus  consecutive  octaves  are  avoided. 

Why  the  7th  may  inus  be  allowed  to  be  heard  in  the  second  chord  at  II,  shall  b« 
explained  presently. 


Ex.  19. 


TO    PEEVENT    CONSECXJTIVE    FIFTHS. 

Observe  this  simple  rule — whenever  the  fundamental  bass  ascends  one  degree,  the 
5th  of  that  bass  must  not  be  allowed  to  a,<tcend  to  the  5th  of  the  following  bass,  as  at 
IIIj  but  must  deacend  one  degree,  as  at  IV.  Thus  the  C,  being  the  5th  of  the  bass  P, 
having  descended  on  the  bass  G  (with  which  it  now  forms  a  3d),  the  consecutive 
6ths  are  prevented;  but  as  we  have  already  a  3d  in  the  principal  melody,  it 
becomes  necessary  that  we  should  ascend  again  to  the  nearest  note  of  the  chord,  viz., 
the  5th,  as  at  V. 

Consecutive  5ths  and  8ths*  are  both  avoided  at  VI,  where  the  harmony  proceeds  to 
a  close;  the  7th  descends  to  the  3d  of  the  last  chord  (the  Tonic),  whilst  the  5th 
descends  to  the  8th. 

On  this  subject  we  will  say  no  more  at  present;  indeed,  it  would  be  rather 
injurious  than  otherwise  to  enter  more  minutely  into  it  here. 

The  student  is  recommended  to  reflect  upon  what  has  hitherto  been  said;  and,  by 
exercising  himself  on  subjects  in  which  consecutive  5ths  and  Sths  arise,  he  will  not 
only  impress  this  matter  upon  his  mind,  but  require  a  facility  in  writing  which  will  be 
found  exceedingly  useful  in  his  future  studies.  The  three  last  notes  of  any  scale  will 
answer  this  purpose,  as  the  fundamental  bass  there  ascends  one  degree. 

Let  him  here  add  the  alto  and  tenor  (as  in  Ex.  19)  to  the  themes  which  he  has 
accompanied  with  fundamental  basses  only,  and  prevent  the  consecutive  5ths  and  Sths, 
as  directed  above. 

To  dwell  a  little  longer  upon  the  delightful  simplicity  of  the  first  steps  in  this 
science  we  will,  for  a  little  while,  postpone  the  subject  of  the  Dominant  7th,  to  point 
out  the  diversified  effects  to  be  produced  by  different  methods  of  playing  the  same 
ehord,  which,  if  occasionally  introduced  in  subsequent  exercises,  will  render  them 
more  amusing,  as  well  as  instructive. 

DIVKRSIFICATION   OF   THE   COMMON   CHORD. 

In  a  word  of  three  syllables,  each  syllable  is  separately  pronounced;  yet  it  is  still 
only  one  word.  In  a  similar  manner  each  of  the  three  notes  of  a  common  chord 
may  bo  separately  sounded  without  in  the  least  altering  the  nature  of  the  chord. 


•     »     •    TO' 

•  It  may  be  observed,  that  these  objectienable  proareeslons  will  occur  wherever  the  fanda- 
■odUI  basB  and  principal  melody  ascend  togpther  one  degree. 


36 


HARMONY    AND    COMPOSITION. 


As  the  common  chord  consists  of  three  intervals  it  may  be  varied  or  diversified  in 
ticB  different  groups,  by  employing  the  figures  which  represent  the  notes,  in  this  order: 
6,  6,3,8,5. 

To  form  the  first  group,  take  the  first  three  figures,  commencing  at  8  (as  below 

at  a). 

For  the  second  group,  take  the  three  figures  commencing  at  5  (as  at  h). 

Aud  for  the  third  group,  take  the  last  three  figures,  commencing  at  8  (as  at  •). 

a.  8  5  8 

b.  6  8  8 
e.                8                8                5 

For  the  next  three  groups,  reverse  the  above  order,  beginning  at  the  last  figure 
(5),  and  proceeding  from  right  to  left ;  then  commencing  at  the  8,  and  lastly  at  the  8. 

In  this  manner  we  will  proceed  to  diversify  the  chord  of  C,  writing,  on  an  under 
staff,  the  fundamental  bass,  and,  on  the  upper  staff,  the  six  diversifications,  the  same 
process  serving  for  each  of  the  three  positions. 


■  836   3  9 


Ex.  SI. 


When  a  scale,  or  any  other  melody,  has  been  harmoniied,  the  chords  may  ue  thu! 
diversified,  selecting  some  one  variation  or  ffr<mp  of  notes  as  a  model,  and  continuing 
the  tame  through  all  the  chords  of  the  exercise.f 

The  following  is  a  melody  in  four  parts,  to  which  is  added  an  accompaniment, 
taking  for  the  model  of  diversification  the  lowest,  the  middle,  and  then  the  highest 
Bote  of  each  chord. 

,. ^  ^ 


Ex.  a. 


t  Thii  will  be  found  to  be  a  Tery  ngefnl  exercise  for  yonnp  pianoforte  playeri. 

•  Thin  IB  «  mark  of  abbreviation,  denoting  that  the  preceding  group  of  notea  sauBt  be  repeated. 

•  ConeecQtiTe  5tk8  and  8thB  aToidcd. 


HARMONY    AND    COMPOSITION. 


87 


The  harmoDiEed  scale  of  C,  employing  the  different  diversifications,  ««  in  Ex.  23. 

Ex.  W. 


i 


;=^&^ 


=[==F  ^  0>  *- 


E^=^ 


m 


■ts^^ 


^^^ 


J     ^       ^  »>t|;  ^ 


J 4-4 


£23i(- 


§:*= 


*-*  »     I  5-» — 


"^^m^ 


^s 


^ 


4.1 — 4- 


n — r 


"^ 


^^ 


:.y=i 


^^ 


J    JJ 


Other  scales  and  melodies  may  now  be  taken  to  extend  this  practice,  by  which  the 
student  will  thus  early  acquire  ideas,  as  well  as  a  facility  in  varying  his  exercises. 

Preliminary  Ohervations  on  the  Chord  of  the  Dominant  Seventh. 

Let  it  be  observed  that  our  harmonies  at  first  consisted  entirely  of  Coninoon 
Chords,  ».  «.,  chords  composed  only  of  the  intervals  of  the  3d,  5th  and  8th;  until  (in 
avoiding  consecutive  octaves)  we  introduced  a  new  interval,  viz.,  the  7th;  which,  as  its 
name  implies,  is  the  7th  note  above  the  bass.* 

This  7th  we  call  the  Dominant  7fh;  because  whenever  it  is  introduced  into  a  chord, 
that  chord  immediately  becomes  a  Dominant  Chord,  and  leads  the  ear  tc  expect  the 
Tonic.f 

It  is  also  called  the  fundamental  7th,  for  a  reason  which  will  be  explained  here- 
after.! 

It  is  likewise  called  thf'  added  7thi  because  it  may  be  added  to  any  common 
chord. §  For  instance,  in  Ex.  19,  VI,  to  the  chord  G  we  have  added  the  fundamental 
7th,  P,  which  7th  is  a  whole  tone  below  the  8th.  This  common  chord  of  G,  by  the 
addition  of  this  7th,  becomes  a  Dominant  Chord,  and  proceeds  to  the  chord  of  its 
Tonic,  0. 

N.  B.— It  is  in  this  progression  of  the  chord  of  the  Dominant  to  its  Tonic,  that  each 
Interval  has  its  particular  course  appointed,  which  is  called  its  resolution:  a  satis- 
factory explanation  of  which  will  be  afforded  in  its  proper  place. 

It  is  stated  above  that  the  interval  of  the  fundamental  7th  may  be  added  to  any 
eommon  chord;  whenever  this  addition  is  made  it  is  usual  to  place  the  figure  7  over  or 
under  the  bass  of  that  chord  (See  Ex  24  a),  and  this  is  called  figuring  the  bass. 

Every  bass  note  is  supposed  to  be  always  accompanied  by  its  common  chord, 
according  to  the  signature;  therefore  it  is  not  necessary  to  figure  the  bass,  except  when 

•  Observe,  this  7th  U  not  the  7t,li  of  tfu  teaU;  it  is  a  whole  tone  below  the  8ve  of  its  bass. 
t  See  philosophical  explanation,  Ex.  48. 

X  See  Bx.  52,  bar  1,  last  chord.    It  is  pometimes  called  the  flat  7th,  In  contra-divtinction  to  the  7tk 
»f  th<'  »cale,  which  is  a  sharp  7th.     See  Bx.  249. 
(  To  th«  Preceptor.— A  Major  chord,  of  coarse. 


t8 


HARMONY    AND    COMPOSITION. 


some  addition  is  made  to  that  chord,  or  some  alteration  is  required,  saeh  m  »ny 
interval  of  the  chord  requiring  a  sharp,  flat  or  natural  Thus  at  Kx.  24  a,  because 
the  fundamental  7th  to  C  is  Bb,  we  have  placed  a  flat  before  the  7:  and  in  the  sam* 
Ex.  at  b,  because  the  6th  requires  to  be  made  flat,  we  place  the  figure  6  over  the  bass, 
with  a  flat  before  it. 

But  when  the  3d  of  the  chord  requires  a  flat,  then  »  flat  alone,  without  a  figure,  is 
sufficient;  it  being  understood  among  musicians  that  njlat,  sharp  or  TMtural  (without  a 
figure)  placed  over  a  bass  note  shall  always  be  considered  as  applying  to  the  third  of 
the  chord.    (See  the  shatp  aloae  in  Ex.  26.) 


Ex.24. 


When  any  other  interval  of  a  chord  requires  a  tharp.  then  in  figuring  the  bass  we 
spare  the  trouble  of  writing  a  sharp,  and  merely  make  a  slight  dash  through  the  head 
of  the  figure  which  represents  the  interval,  as  the  5  in  the  following  Ex.: 


Ex.  25. 


It  may  be  asked,  "  Why  is  a  bass  figured  at  all?"  The  answer  is,  "  That  a 
figured  bass  represents,  in  an  abbreviated  form,  those  chords  which  constitute  a 
musical  composition."  This  is,  in  fact,  thorough  bass.  The  thorough  bass  playei 
is  required  to  play  the  chords  thus  represented  by  figures,  as  if  they  were  actuallj 
printed,  as  they  are  in  the  above  Example,  from  which,  if  the  pupil  will  remove  the 
treble  staff  and  play  the  chords  from  the  figures  alone,  he  will  be  a  thorough  baas 
player.  Perhaps  he  may  wonder  at  this,  so  little  having  been  said  upon  the  subject; 
yet  the  little  that  has  already  been  eaid  may  be  considered  as  containing  all  the  el©' 
mentary  principles  of 

THOROUGH   BASSl 

It  has  been  shown  (Ex.  24  and  25)  that  the  interval  of  the  Fundamental  7th  may 
be  added  to  any  common  chord. 

When  this  addition  is  made,  the  chord  becomes  a  Dominant  Ohord,  and  a  power 
is  communicated  to  it,  by  the  addition  of  that  interval,  which  irresistibly  propels  the 
harmony  towards  the  Tonic. 

This  impulse  towards  the  Tonic  arises  principally,  if  not  altogether,  from  the  effect 
produced  by  the  3 1  and  the  7th  of  the  Dominant  Chord  when  heard  together ;  the 
former  (viz.,  the  3d)  having  tendency  to  ascend  a  half  tone  to  the  8ve  of  itsTonie; 
while  the  latter  (the  7th)  has  a  tendency  to  descend  a  half*  tone  ^o  the  3d  of  its  Tonio. 

•  We  will  not  anticipate  an  observation  which  may  be  made  at  Bx.  53,  b;  and  61,  etc,  which  li 
explained  at  Ex    145. 


HARMONY    AND    COMPOSITION. 


8V 


Resolution  of  the  Zrd  and  Ith  of  the  Dominant. 


Ex.  36. 


These  two  intervals  exercising  so  powerful  an  influence  over  its  progression ,  tA4 
Chord  of  the  Dominant  or  Fundamental  1th  may  justly  be  viewed  as  the  main-sprinsj 
of  the  whole  machinery  of  harmony — it  governs  and  directs  all — the  name  of  Dominant 
is,  therefore,  given  to  it  with  great  propriety. 

After  what  has  been  said,  it  may  be  considered  as  a  law,  that  the  several  interval 
of  this  Chord,  which  is  called  the  Resolution  of  the  Dominant  7th,  should  proceed 
thus:* 

The  bass to  ascend  a  4th,  or  descend  a  5th  to  its  Tonic. 

The  3rd  of  the  Chord  to  ascend  a  halftone to  the  8th  of  its  Tonic         (a) 

T-  e  7  h to  descend  &  half  tone to  the  3rd  of  its  Tonic.  (ft)f 

The  8ve to  remain  in  its  place,  and  thus  become  the  5th  of  its  Tonic,   (c) 

The  6th to  descend  one  degree to  the  8th  of  the  Tonic.       {d) 

The  5th  may,  however,  be  allowed  sometimes  to  atcend  to  the  3rd  of  its  Tonic.        («) 

Each  interval  resolved. 


Ex.  27. 


Allowing,  then,  the  intervals  of  the  Chord  of  the  Dominant  to  proceed  as  it 
ppears  itself  to  dictate,  we  shall  find  the  succeeding  chord  will  always  be  its  Tonic,  as 
^in  the  preceding  Ex4 

Resolution  of  the  Chord  of  the  Dominant  1th  in  its  various  positions. 

Ex.  28. 


In  resolving  the  Dominant  Chord,  let  the  pupil  first  dispose  of  its  8rd,  which  must 
•scend  a  half  tone,  and  keep  in  mind  that  the  note  to  which  this  3rd  proceeds  will  be 
the  8ve  of  the  Tonic  ;  then  resolve  the  7th,  neit  the  Sve,  and,  last  of  all,  the  5th. 

As  it  is  of  essential  importance  that  he  should  be  very  well  exercised  in  the  use  of 
this  Fundamental  1th  and  Its  Resolution,  we  will  commence  a  course  of  exercises  calcu- 
lated to  bring  into  practical  operation  what  has  been  said  in  explanation  of  Ex.  27. 

*  The  pupil  is  requested  p&rticalarly  to  attend  to  what  is  here  said,  as  vary  freqaeat  reference  wiB 
be  made  to  it. 

t  To  the  Prteeptor.— When  the  key  is  Major,  of  cooree. 
t  Toth*  IVee^rtor.—See  Exception,  Kx.  267. 


40 


HARMONY    AND    OOBfPOSITION* 


We  shall  begin  with  th«  chord  of  C,  at  bar  1,  Ex.  29. 

That  Ohord,  when  heard  (being  merely  a  common  chord),  prodnces  no  desire  te 
proceed  to  any  particular  chord;  we  may  proceed,  if  we  please,  to  the  chord  of  Q  (m 
at  2),  or  to  any  other  chord,  and  return  again  to  C  (as  at  3);  the  ear  seems  perfectly 
indififerent  upon  the  subject. 

The  case,  however,  is  greatly  altered,  when  to  that  chord  of  C  we  add  the  7th,  Bb 
(as  at  4).  Then  an  immediate  desire  manifests  itself  to  proceed  to  the  chord  of  th° 
Tonic  P.  By  these  two  important  intenals  of  the  Dominant  Chord  (the  7th  and  the 
3rd)  we  are  lunji),  as  it  were,  compelled  to  allow  the  harmony  to  proceed  to  the  Tonic  at 
5.  The  3rd  being  determined  to  tiseend  a  half  tone,  and  the  7th  to  descend,  whilst  the 
8th  and  the  6th  of  the  chord  are  passively  carried  along  to  the  place  of  their  destination. 

At  5,  we  see  that  the  chord  of  the  Tonic  P  arises,  as  it  were,  spontaneously  out  of 
the  resolution  of  the  chord  of  the  Fundamental  7th  at  4. 

Practical  application  of  the  Resolution  of  the  Dominant  or  Fundamental  7th. 


Ex.  29 


At  5,  the  ear  would  have  come  to  a  perfect  state  of  rest;  we  might  have  ended  the 
exercise  there,  but  the  7th  (EIz)  having  been  added  to  the  chord  (at  6),  it  becomes  a 
Dominant,  and  the  ear  requires  the  harmony  to  proceed  to  the  Tonic  B2  (as  at  7),  and 
thus  we  may  extend  the  exercise  by  continuing  this  process  through  all  the  keys  with 
single  and  double  flats. 

However  difficult  the  above  exercise  may  8e«m  to  the  eye  of  the  young  student,  let 
him  rest  assured  that  it  is  only  so  in  appearance,  and  not  in  reality.  The  process  is 
exceedingly  simple,  especially  to  one  who  has  made  himself  acquainted  with  the  flats 
and  sharps  by  the  method  shown  at  page  0. 

If  the  pupil  writes  a  similar  exercise  (as  in  the  following  Ex.  30),  commencing 
with  BJ|,  it  will  carry  him  through  all  the  keys  with  single  and  double  sharps  and 
flats,  ending  in  D22.  This  he  is  strongly  recommended  to  do,  as  it  will  be  f.)Uiid  an 
excellent  introduction  to  exercises  in  modulation. 


HARMONY    AND    COMPOSITION. 


41 


In  concluding  the  subject  of  the  resolution  of  the  Fundamental  7th,  we  shall 
make  the  following  additional  remarks. 

By  the  introduction  of  this  7th  the  progression  of  harmony  acquires  a  mora 
decided  character,  and  produces,  in  eflfect,  a  certain  degree  of  light  and  shade,  of 
which  a  progre-sion  of  mere  common  chords  is  incapable;  thus,  the  necessity  of  per- 
fectly under- tanding  how  to  employ  that  chord  to  advantage  cannot  be  too  strongly 
enforced.  To  multiply  examples  is  unnecessary;  but  it  is  strongly  recommended  to  the 
pupil  frequently  to  play  the  preceding  exercise  with  and  without  the  7th,  by  which 
means  the  ear  will  be  early  accustomed  to  compare  and  judge  of  the  difference  of 
effect. 

HABMOirr  IN  WOVK  PARTS. 

An  instance  of  this  has  already  appeared  in  Ex.  18,  which  is  generally  called 
writing  in  score.  Each  part  being  written  upon  a  separate  staff  its  progression  is  more 
clearly  distinguishable  than  when  all  the  harmonies  are  compressed  into  two  staves,  as 
they  are  always  written  for  the  pianoforte. 

In  our  remarks  on  Ex.  18,  we  partially  entered  upon  the  subject  of  writing  in  four 
parts,  taking  the  scale  as  a  them'^.  The  pupil  was  afterwards  directed  to  add  the  alto 
and  tenor  to  those  themes  which  he  had  accompanied  with  fundamental  basses,  and  to 
present  the  consecutive  5ths  and  8ths  as  shown  in  Ex.  19.  We  will  now  proceed  to 
harmonize  a  melody,  in  four  parts,  in  order  to  make  him  acquainted  with  another 
method  of  preventing  consecutive  5ths  and  Sths, 


Soprano. 


The  consecutive  Sthsand  8th  appear  in  the  above  Example,  in  the  7th  bar,  where 
the  note  Eb  in  the  alto  (instead  of  being  changed  into  a  7th,  by  the  ascending  of  the 
Fundamental  bass)  descends  to  the  5th  of  the  succeeding  Dominant  Chord;  whilst,  at 
the  same  time,  the  5th  (Bb)  in  the  tenor  ascends  to  the  7lh.  Thus,  the  alto  and 
tenor  cross  each  other,  or,  in  other  words,  interchange  places;  and  the  rule,  that  "the 
same  interval  ought  not  to  appear  again  in  the  same  part  in  immediate  succession,"  has 
been  observed. 

This,  as  well  as  the  preceding  method  of  preventing  consecutive  Sths  and  Sths  may 
be  employed  at  pleasure. 

The  pupil  may  now,  by  way  of  exercise,  re-harmonize  in  Score  some  of  the  themes 
already  given;  not  forgetting  to  mark  each  interval  of  everv  chord  with  its  proper 
figure;  let  him  eapecially  keep  in  mind,  that  the  harmony  which  has  been  employed  to 
accompany  these  themes  has,  up  to  the  present  time,  consisted  of  common  chords,  only 
except  at  the  7th  of  the  Scale,  to  prevent  consecutive  8ves. 

As  the  importance  of  the  chord  of  the  Dominant  7th,  together  with  its  decided 
character,  and  the  vast  influence  it  exerts  in  guidins  the   harmony,   dispensing   light. 


42 


HARMONY    AND    COMPOSITION, 


■bade  «nd  energy  through  the  whole,  have  already  been  fally  ezplainecl,  ft  ihall  now  be 
shown  hvu)  Hud  where  this  new  and  powerful  auxiliary  may  be  introduced  in  abarmooy 
of  four  parts. 

The  question  first  naturally  arises,  to  which  of  the  chorda  of  the  three  fundaments 
basses  may  we  add  it?  and  where  shall  we  find  room  for  this  new  interval? 

Answer  — We  can  introduce  it  in  any  chord,  provided  the  chord  immediately 
following  be  its  Tonic.     Thus  then  arises  the  rule, 

"  When  the  bass  proceeds  from  Dominant  to  Tonic,  we  may  introduce  the  7th  upon 
the  Dominant. 

Let  us  now  examine  by  this  rule  Ex.  31,  and  discover  which  of  the  basses  will 
admit  of  a  7th. 

Q.  Can  we  introduce  a  7th  on  the  first  note,  Bb  ?— A.  No;  becaase  Bb  la  not  the  Dominant  to  W 
which  immediately  follows  it. 

Q.  Can|we  introduce  a  7th  on  the  second  note,  P  f— A.  Yea;  becanae  P  is  Dominant  to  the  note,  Bb 
which  follows  ? 

Q   Can  we  have  a  7ih  on  Bb,  the  third  note  f— A.  Tes;  becaase  Bb  is  Dominant  to  Kb,  the  follow* 
Ing  note.* 

Thus  let  the  pupil  proceed  through  the  whole  example,  writing  the  figure  7  over  such 
basses  as  will  admit  of  a  seventh  being  added. 

Let  us  now  inquire  in  which  of  the  four  parts  must  the  7th  be  written? 

Ans.  "  In  that  part  where  its  resolution  is  found.'* 

As  the  Dominant  7ch  resolves  Into  the  3rd  of  the  Tonic  which  immediately  follows, 
we  have  only  to  look  forward  to  that  chord,  and  "  wherever  in  the  four  parts  its  3rd  is 
written,  in  ih&t  same  part  write  the  7th."  Thus,  in  the  following  Example,  32  (bar  8), 
the  7th  is  written  in  the  tenor  part. — Why?  Because  the  3rd  of  the  following  chord  is 
there. 

In  the  last  bar  but  one,  the  7th  has  been  introduced  in  the  tenor.  Why  ? — Because 
the  Srd  of  the  following  chord  is  there. 


Soprano. 

Alto. 
Ex.32. 

Tenor. 
Bass. 


mm 


-h- 


b. 


^ 


33= 


^ 


:r=rt 


iict 


ai 


IJT 


tlT 


In  adding  the  7th  to  any  chord,  it  is  necessary  to  remark,  that,  as  the  harmony 
consists  of  only  four  parts,  one  of  the  parts  must  be  expunged  to  make  room  for  the 
7th.  Thus,  in  the  above  example  (bar  3,  tenor),  the  5th  has  been  exrmnged,  as  marked 
by  a  dot,  the  7th,  Fl,  being  introduced  in  its  place.  It  will,  therefore,  appear  that 
whatever  interval  happens  to  be  found  immediately  preceding  the  3d  of  the  Tonio 
chord,  must  be  taken  away  to  make  room  for  the  7th. 

Q.  Upon  the  bass  D  (bar  2)  can  we  have  a  7th  ? — Yes. 

Q.  Why  ?— Because  D  is  the  Dominant  to  the  note  O,  which  follows  it. 


*  We  are  not  here  speaking  of  the  Dominant  belonging  to  tk«  htf  only;  bat  the  Dominant  of  any 


HARMONY    AND    COMFOSITION. 


i9 


Q.  In  which  part  should  this  7th  be  introduced  ? — In  the  soprano. 

Q.  Why? — Because  the  3rd  of  the  following  chord  is  there.  This  te  true;  but  if 
we  were  to  introduce  the  7th  there,  we  should  be  obliged  (in  conformity  with  the  rule 
just  given)  to  expunge  the  note  A  (which  occupies  that  part)  and  write  C,  the  7th,  in 
its  place;  and  in  doing  so,  we  should  alter  the  original  progression  of  the  scale  or 
melody  given  as  an  exercise.  Let  us  suppose  that  tee  are  not  permitted  to  do  this.  In 
such  a  case,  we  are  necessitated  to  omit  the  7th  altogether;  although  from  the  pro- 
gression of  the  bass,  it  might  be  admitted. 

In  bar  5,  a  similar  circumstance  occurs;  the  8id  (E)  of  the  following  chord  (bar  6) 
being  in  the  principal  melody,  we  cannot  introduce  the  7th. 

The  pupil  should  now  exercise  upon  scales  in  other  keys,  avoiding  consecn'ive 
Sths  and  8ths  by  the  two  different  methods,  and  always  introducing  the  7th  wherever 
the  progression  of  the  bass  and  the  melody  will  admit  of  it.  Melodies  which  linve 
already  been  harmonized  with  common  chords  only  may  now  answer  this  purpose,  th» 
Pupil  proceeding  always  according  to  the  routine  already  pointed  out — thus:^ 

1st.  Write  the  basses. 

2d.  The  common  chords, 

3rd.  Prevent  consecutive  5ths  and  8ths. 

4th.  Discover  the  Dominants  proceeding  to  their  Tonics,  and  mark  them  with  a  7. 

6th.  Introduce  the  7th. 

Bxampls  of  a  Melody  ?iarmonized  in  four  PaH$,  teUh  the  Fundamental  Sevenths 

introduced. 


Bz.33- 


The  pupil  is  recommended  carefully  to  examine  the  above  example;  first,  to  make 
bis  own  remarks  on  what  has  taken  place  at  every  bar,  and  afterwards  to  compare 
them  with  the  following  observations. 

Bar  1. — Though  the  first  Bass  note  is  the  Dominant  to  the  second,  still  the  7th  is 
not  introduced,  because  the  3rd  of  the  following  chord  is  in  the  principal  melody. 
Moreover,  it  is  not  usual  to  commence  with  the  chord  of  the  7th,  although  there  is  ntt 
absolute  law  against  it.*  In  this  first  bar,  also,  where  the  Bass  ascends  one  degree,  the 
consecutive  6ths  and  8ths  are  prevented  by  the  tecond  method,  that  is,  by  the  crossing 
of  the  parts. 

Bar  2.— In  the  alto,  appear  two  8ths  in  immediate  succession.  How  can  this  be 
allowed?    Because  thai  part  (the  Alto)  and  the  Bass  proceed  by  contrary  motion. f 


•  Bee  Ex.  37. 

t  ThiB  may  b«  considered  aa  a  ganeral  role,  "  When  one  part  <ueend$,  while  another  dueendt,  fhty 
proceed  by  coBtrary  motion." 


44 


HARMONY    AND    COMPOSITION. 


Bar  6, — There  appear  to  be  two  chords  oTer  one  bass  note;  but  these  are  merely 
the  taine  chord  in  two  positions. 

Bar  7.— The  figure  7  is  placed  orer  the  JlrU  note  only  of  the  Bass.  It  must  be 
understood  that  a  line  drawn  from  any  figure  and  extended  over  othw  bass  notes,  sig- 
nifies that  the  interval  which  that  figure  represents  shall  be  continued  in  all  the  chords 
oyer  which  the  line  is  extended. 

Now,  let  the  pupil  pause  and  reflect  on  the  progress  which  he  has  hitherto  made 
and  on  the  effect  he  was  able  to  produce  by  the  application  of  the  materials  with  which 
he  has  already  been  furnished;  and  as  this  will  be  productive  of  the  best  effects,  and 
cannot  be  too  early  or  too  frequently  put  into  practice,  let  us  take  a  retrospective  view, 
commencing  with  Ex.|7— 8,  where 

Melody  and  harmony  having  been  described  and  illastrated,  we  proceeded  to  the  discovery  of  the 
Fundamental  Basses  (Examples  9  and  10),  by  which  we  found  that,  in  Example  11, 
The  3d,  5th  and  8th  of  the  Scale  were  accompanied  by  the  Tonic, 

The  2d  and  7th by  the  Dominant, 

The  4th  and  6th by  the  Sub-dominant, 

which  we  called  "  Uu  first  rule  tf  harmonizina"  By  this  rnle  we  were  enabled  to  write  the  Funda- 
mental Basses  to  a  scale  or  melody  (Ex.  14,  15).  The  chords  were  then  added  (Ex.  17),  producing  i 
harmony  ot  /our  parts,  subsequently  appearing  in  score  in  Ex.  18. 

In  preventing  consecutive  Sths  we  were  introduced  to  a  new  interval  (the  Fundamental  7th,  Ex.  19 
which  was  afterwards  interwoven,  and  variously  employed  in  producing  new  effects  and  in  avoiding 
the  monotony  which,  from  a  too  frequent  succession  of  common  chords,  would  eventually  arise. 

Having  now  availed  ourselves  of  all  the  variations  of  effects  resulting  from  the 
application  of  the  three  Fundamental  Basses,  according  to  first  rule,  let  us  see  whether 
we  cannot  produce  a  still  greater  variety,  by  some  change  in  their  application. 

We  shall  find  that  an  opportunity  presents  itself,  arising  fromt  the  introduction  of 
the  Fundamental  7th  (as  in  Ex.  33). 

On  examination,  it  will  be  perceived  that  the  4th  of  a  Scale  is,  in  fact,  the  Funda- 
metal  7th  of  the  Dominant  of  that  Scale;  consequently  we  may  accompany  the  fourth 
of  the  Scale  by  the  Dominant,  as  its  bass,  provided  that  the  fourth,  on  this  occasion,  in 
its  progression,  descends  one  degree*    This  we  shall  call 

The  Second  Rule  of  Harmonizing. 

"  When  the  Ath  of  the  scale  descends  one  degree,  it  titay  be  accompanied  by  the 
Dominant. -f" 


At  a,  the  4th  is  accompanied  by  the  Sob-Dominant,  as  heretofore;  at  b,  by  the 
Dominant. 

Here  we  see  that,  by  anew  application  of  one  of  these  fundamental  bases  (viz.,  II  e 
Dominant),  a  new  effect  is  produced,  not  only  as  it  respects  the  interval  of  the  4lh 
itself,  when  heard  in  conjunction  with  the  intervals  of  the  Dominant  Chord,  but  also 


%  Why  this  proviso  Is  necessary,  will  be  evident  when  we  consider  the  progression  of  the  7th, 
which,  in  Its  resolution.  Is  required  to  (Usesnd  one  cUgrts. 
t  Instead  of  the  8ab-Domin*nU 


HARMONY    AND    COMPOSITION. 


4B 


as  regards  the  imw  progression  of  the  Alto  and  Tenor.    Compare  I.  with  IV.  ia  the 
loUowine:  Eixample: 

7%e  Second  Rule  Illustrated  in  Pour  Part*. 


At  I,  the  4th  of  the  Scale  (F)  descends  one  degree  to  E,and  we  have  accompanied 
it  by  the  Dominant,  G.  When  the  4th  of  the  Scale  in  descending  is  thus  accompanied, 
let  the  8rd  of  that  chord  (the  Dominant)  be  written  in  the  Alto,  and  the  8ve  in  the 
Tenor,  as  at  I;  otherwise  the  3rd  of  the  chord  will  be  excluded  at  II,  or  the  concluding 
chord  will  want  its  5th,  as  at  III.  In  both  these  cases  one  of  the  chords  would  be  in- 
complete, which  should  be  avoided.  It  need  scarcely  be  stated  that,  when  the  4th  of 
the  Scale  aseendt,  if  cannot  be  accompanied  by  the  Dominant,  because  its  progression 
would  be  contrary  to  the  resolution  of  the  7th*. 

Observations. 

Altliough  the  primary  object  in  introducing  the  second  rule  is  to  produce  variety, 
and  open  a  more  extensive  field  for  the  employment  of  one  of  the  Fundamental  Basses, 
yet  another  and  important  object  is  also  attained  by  the  employment  of  that  rule. 

It  is  a  general  principle  in  harmonizing  an  air,  that  the  key  of  that  air  should  be 
established  and  impressed  upon  the  ear  as  soon  as  possible;  this  can  be  effected  only 
by  the  introduction  of  the  Dominant.  The  second  rule  affords  us  this  opportunity.  See 
'  Ex.  86  a,  where,  the  fourth  of  the  scale  descending,  we  have  accompanied  it  by  the 
Dominant,  by  which  the  key  becomes  established;  but  at  ft,  where  the  4th  again 
descends,  we  have  accompanied  it  by  the  Sub-dominant;  the  necessity  of  establishing 
the  key  here  no  longer  exists,  and  it  would  have  sshibited  a  want  of  taste  as  well  a 
judgment,  had  we  again  accompanied  it  by  the  Dominant,  as  will  be  evident  if  we 
examine  the  harmony  at  a,  and  compare  it  with  that  at  b. 

These  ff-w  observations,  if  carefully  attended  to,  will  suffice  for  the  present  to  show 
how  the  pupi   tnnv  emplov  the  second  rule  with  propriety  and  effect. 


Bx.56. 


When  the  fourth  of   the  scale  is  repeated  and  then  descends,  it  is  good  to  employ 
*  An  apparent  exception  to  this  role  ehall  be  explained  hereafter. 


M 


HARMONY    A.ND    COMPOSITION. 


both  the  fundamental  basses— Jir$t  the  sub-dominant,  and  then  the  dominant.  (See 
the  following  Ex.  a.)  But  let  the  pupil  be  careful  he  does  not  employ  the  dominant 
;fr«t,  and  then  the  svb-dominant ;  for  in  that  case  the  fundamental  ««venth  cooid  not  be 
rwolved.    (See  b.) 


E».37.  / 


It  is  not  usual  to  commence  a  composition  with  the  chord  of  the  seventh  (although 
there  is  no  absolute  law  against  it)  Should  we,  however,  be  inclined  at  anytime  to 
Introduce  the  fundamental  seventh  upc&  the  first  chord  of  a  melody,  it  will  be  better  to 
let  the  chord  be  first  heard  as  a  common  chord,  and  introduce  the  seventh  only  on  the 
latter  part  of  it  (as  in  the  tenor  at  c). 

In  order  clearly  to  ascertain  the  variety  which  has  been  produced  simply  by  the 
introduction  of  the  second  rule,  the  pupil  should  harmonizp  the  fourth  of  the  scale 
descending  by  both  rules  alternately,  noticing  particularly  the  change  which  takes  place 
in  the  inner  parts. 

Themes  for  Exercises  en  the  Second  Rule*. 


•  The  Hgnree  placed  over  thu  notes  point  oat  the  rales  to  be  employed;  1-2,  tlias  placed  ovei  a 
■ote,  denotes  that  both  rn)'^«<  are  to  be  emplove'l 
t  See  8x.  42  and  Retoarke;  also,  page  45  *t  *f«. 
I  Bee  Ex.  87  (a). 


HARMONY    AND    COMPOSITION. 


4^ 


The  intelligent  student  must,  ere  this,  have  observed  that  when  only  the  first  rule 
of  harmonizing  was  employed,  no  judgment  was  necessary  Id  selecting  the  fundamental 
basses,  and  finding  the  harmonies:  the  question  was  simply — "  what  part  of  the  scale 
is  such  a  note,  and  what  is  its  fundamental  bass  ?" 

But,  by  the  introduction  of  the  second  rule,  the  case  is  very  dififerent;  because,  as 
the  fourth  of  the  scale  in  descending  has  now  the  advantage  of  being  accompanied  by 
Uoo  bases,  and  as  a  choice  is  thus  presented  in  selecting  either  one  or  the  other,  the 
judgmmt  of  the  pupil  is  required  to  be  exercised  in  this  selection. 

Hitherto,  as  far  as  regards  harmonizing  airs,  he  has  been,  as  it  were,  in  leading 
strings;  now  he  is  beginning,  it  may  be  said,  to  walk  alone;  and  as  this  is  the  very  first 
step  toward  the  cultivation  of  his  judgment,  let  him  exercise  it  in  harmonizing  the  pre- 
ceding melodies — remembering  that,  even  when  the  fourth  of  the  scale  does  descend  one 
degree,  he  is  not  obliged  to  accompany  it  by  the  Dominant;  this  is  left  entirely  to  his 
•wn  judgment :  but  when  it  ascends,  he  is  obliged  to  accompany  it  by  the  Sub-Dorri' 
inant  only. 

We  are  now  to  suppose  the  pupil  to  have  harmonized  the  preceding   melodies 

according  to  the  second  rule — that  he  has  played  them,  examined  ihe  different  effects 

and  attained  a  certain  degree  of  facility  in  judging  correctly  and  readily  as  to  the  best 
mode  of  employing  the  three  fundamental  basses.  Thus  prepared,  we  shall  proceed  to 
show  him  how,  by  a  new  and  varied  application  of  another  of  the  three  fundamental 
basses,  the  harmony  may  be  still  more  enriched  and  improved,  and  a  greater  variety  of 
effect  produced. 

In  the  preceding  examples,  i\\%  fourth  of  the  scale  came  ynder  consideration;  in 
the  following,  the  eighth  of  the  scale  shall  be  our  object.  We  are  aware  that,  accord- 
ing to  the  first  rule,  the  eighth  of  the  scale  is  accompanied  by  the  Tonic;  but  it  shall 
now  be  shown  how  that  interval  (under  certain  circumstances)  may  be  accompanied  by 
the  8fub-D"minant  instead  of  the  Tonic. 

This  we  shall  call 

T?ie  Third  Rule  of  Harmonizing. 
"  When  the  eighth  of  the  scale  is  repeated,  it  may  be  accompanied 
by  the  Sub-Dominant  instead  of  the  Tonic).'" 


■z.s8. 


•        ■    i        i    1     t  5      T,    »    i        !    «     i  5     »       T.    S         7.    S     B 


9  mm  9     m      9  O I  \     om  S     m      9  9      9         'i*'  1 ,     9       O 


t^i>,jjjtihgpj  |%^'rJ-p^^^MTH=^>^l-^^^f4^^ 


At  a,  in  the  above  example,  the  chord  of  C  being  repeated  five  times,  a  very 
fnonotonous  effect  is  produced  by  the  application  of  the  first  rule  only.  This,  however, 
is  avoided  by  the  employment  of  the  first  and  third  rule  alternately,  (as  at  (  o.) 


48 


HARMONY    AND    COMPOSITION. 


Although  this  rule  has  reference  particularly  to  the  eighth  of  the  scale  when 
repeated,  yet  it  may  occasionally  be  employed  where  that  interval  is  not  repeated  (as  at 
d  and  «)j  but,  as  the  effect  produced  at  d  is  rather  harsh  and  unsatisfactory,  the  rule 
should,  on  such  occasions,  be  used  sparingly.     The  effect,  however,  at  e  is  good. 

What  was  stated  respecting  the  effect  produced  upon  the  alto  and  tenor  by  the 
application  of  the  tecond  rule  (see  Ex.  86),  may  be  applied  here  also  to  the  third  rule: 
by  the  latter,  it  will  be  perceived,  we  are  enabled  still  more  frequently  and  effectively 
to  avail  ourselves  of  the  powerful  influence  of  the  Fundamental  Seventh,  by  which 
the  whole  texture  of  the  harmony  becomes  more  firmly  connected  and  amalgamated, 
and  also,  (as  has  been  stated  before)  the  inner  parts  become,  in  their  progression,  more 
flowing  and  melodious. 

All  this  will  be  evident,  if  the  Pupil  play  and  then  carefully  examine  the  preceding 
Example,  comparing  the  monotonous  effect  produced  by  the  first  rule  at  a,  with  the 
diversity  of  effect  which  arises  out  of  the  employment  of  the  third  rule  at  b  and  e. 
However,  he  must  not  rest  her?;  let  him  also  carefully  examine  and  compare  the  variety 
of  effect  produced  in  the  progression  of  the  melodies  of  the  alto  and  tenor  hy  the  different 
application  of  the  third  rule  at  i  and  e. 

The  Pupil  is  most  particularly  recommended  not  only  to  notice  well  what  has  been 
said,  but  also  (in  order  that  the  value  of  these  rules  may  be  still  more  permanently 
impressed  upon  his  mind  a,nd  thus  practicall  established)  to  harmonize  a  melody  by 
the  first  rule  only  (see  Ex.  39,  I),  and  then  harmonize  the  »a7ne  melody  by  the  three 
rules  (as  in  Ex.  39,  II);  and,  if  he  carefully  examine  ar,d  compare  them,  he  will  be 
surprised  to  find,  that  all  the  variety  of  effect  hitherto  produced  has  arisen  solely  out  of 
♦.he  different  application  of  two  of  the  three  fundamental  basses  only. 
Melody  harmonized  according  to  the  First  Rule  only,  to  he  compared  with  Ex.  39,  II. 

Nothing,  perhaps,  is  better  calculated  to  impress  upon  the  mind  of  the  pupil  the 
Talue  and  importance  of  these  rules  than  the  preceding  examples,  which  he  is  strongly 


Ex.39.  / 
II.     \ 


P 


Same  Melody  harmonized  according  to  the  three  Rules. 
I.  2.  3,  4.  5-  6.  7.  8. 


-num 


i-^J    -UjH  .'!''■  1! 


^a=£3J=to==i4J    Jl'.    i»j  ?f?=FrT7=i=^ 


HARMONY    AND    COMPOSITION. 


49 


recommended  to  examine  and  inyestigate  with  respect  to  the  effects  which  they  pro- 
duce. In  Older  that  he  may  derive  all  the  adrantages  which  the  examples  thus  afford, 
let  him  not  pass  through  this  examination  hastily;  on  the  contrary,  let  him  compare 
the  two,  bar  for  bar.  For  instance  :  let  him  take  the  first  bar  of  I  and  compare  it  with 
the  first  bar  at  II.  Play  each  of  these  bars,  and  mark  the  difference  of  effect  pro- 
duced. Having  done  so,  let  him  play  and  compare  the  alto  and  tenor  of  each  example, 
observing  the  effect  of  each.  The  advantage  resulting  to  the  pupil  from  this  process  is 
incalculable,  because  it  will  (even  at  this  early  stage)  ^ake  him  acquainted  with  the 
practical  part  of  that  harmony,  without  which  all  his  theoretical  knowledge  is  useless.  * 
We  shall  now  proceed  to  explain  Ex.  39,  II. 

In  bar  1,  the  seventh  is  introduced  in  the  alto.     Why  ?    Because  its  resolution  is 
in  that  part,  and  it  is  thus  introduced  only  on  the  latter  part  of  the  chord,  in  order 
that  the  harmony  may  commence  with  the  common  chord  of  the  tonic,  f 
111  bar  two,  the  seventh  is  introduced  in  the  tenor.     Why  ? 

three soprano. 

four ....  tenor. 

five alto. 

six tenor. 

N.  B.  Where  one  Dominant  Chord  is  immediately  succeeded  by  another,  the  third 
of  the  fir$t  D  >minant  needs  not  ascend,  but  mav  descend  and  become  the  seventh  of 
the  following  Dominant  Chord,  as  in  bars  4  and  5  alto.  This  may  be  considered  as  a 
general  rule.  $ 

The  following  melodies,  although  written  expressly  as  exercises  for  the  third  r«ile, 
•re  so  constructed  that  the  second  rule  can  be  introduced  with  equal  advantage.  They 
should  be  harmonized  by  the  pupil  in  a  variety  of  ways;  and,  in  doing  so,  he  may  be 
considered  as  having  entered  upon  the  second  step  in  the  improvement  of  his  judg- 
iLeat  with  respect  to  effect. 

Themes  for  Exercise  on  the  Third  Rule. 
No.  1. 


i 


ff^TTfrnn 


W^^^^^W^FW^ 


X 


8«e  Retrospect,  pAgec  54  to  56. 
See  also  Ex.  -f?  c.  and  remarka  46. 
X  Observe  how  a  nimllar  progression  is  treated,  Ex.  41,  b»r.  6  where  the  3d  of  the  DominaBt  li 
the  alto  has  atcended  first  to  the  octave,  and  afterward  deeeended  on  the  aame  base  to  tke  7th;  alsd 
kar  10  in  the  tenor^  eame  Ex. 

I  See  conaecnUve  &th  and  8th.  Ex.  81. 


50 


HARMONY    AND    COMPOSITION. 


We  shall  now  explain 

The  Fourth  Rule  of  Harmonizing. 

••  The  Fifth  of  the  Scale  may  be  accompanied  by  the  Dominant.'' 

Hitherto  the  fifth  of  the  scale  has  been  accompanied  by  the  Tonic  only;  but,  as 
by  the  fourth  rule  (as  shall  be  shown  presently)  we  are  enabled  to  accompany  that 
interval  with  two  basses,  a  still  greater  variety  will  be  thus  introduced  into  the  har- 
mony; chiefly  so,  when  the  fifth  of  the  scale  is  frequently  repeated,  or  heard  in  notes 
of  long  duration. 

In  the  following  example,  at  bar  1,  the  fifth  (D)  being  four  times  repeated,  we 
have,  upon  the  second  D,  introducf  d  the  fourth  rule  ;  and  thus  the  monotony,  which 
by  the  employment  of  the  first  rule  only  would  have  been  unavoidable,  is  here  pre- 
vented; a  great  similarity  appears  to  exist,  in  this  particular,  between  the  third  rvU 
(Ex.  38)  and  the  fourth;  as  will  be  perceived,  if  we  compare  bar  1  in  the  present 
example  with  bar  3;  in  which  latter,  the  octave  being  five  times  repeated,  the  third 
rule  has  been  opportunely  introduced  to  prevent  monotony,  similar  to  the  fourth  rule 
at  bar  1. 

At  5,  is  shown  how  the  fourth  rule  may  be  employed,  although  the  fifth  is  not 
repeated. 


§ 


Bx.40- 


I.  9.  3. 


4ri  1 1  li 


^ 


■  'M  '  I 


^-m-^-»-^(:^--^ 


i=a= 


m 


g>   ^  gs  •  I  gPrS*- 


:t=t 


^=u^'j'^-^rrmri 


^s 


P^lfy^tFJ^Rj'rJJit--,-,-iiYn 


Lpt  the  Pupil  now  carefully  examine  the  following  exeicise,  in  which  the  preceding 
four  rules  will  be  found  combined;  and,  in  order  that  he  may  discover,  without  any 
difficulty,  how  and  where  each  rule  has  been  introduced,  figures  are  placed  over  the 
notes  (as  in  the  Themes),  pointing  out  the  particular  rule  that  has  been  employed. 

The  Four  Rules  combined. 


HARMONY    AND    COMPOSITION. 


61 


At  bars  1,  9,  and  10,  Eb  (the  fifth)  being  a  note  of  long  duration,  we  hava 
•mployed  the  first  and  fourth  rules  alternately;  thus  monotony  is  prevented  and 
variety  introduced. 

N.  B.  When  the  fourth  or  the  third  rule  is  employed,  the  seventh  will  be  found  in 
the  alto. 

Observe  the  progfression  of  the  inner  parts,  arising  out  of  the  application  of  this  rule. 

At  bar  8,  the  fourth  of  the  scale  (Db),  in  descending,  is  enriched  by  both  the  Sub- 
Dominant  and  Dominant  harmonies.  Had  that  interval  been  accompanied  by  the  first 
rule  alone,  we  should  hare  deprived  ourselves,  not  only  of  these  harmonies,  but  also  of 
that  very  important  interval,  the  Fundamental  Seventh. 

In  bar  5,  the  eighth,  being  repeated,  has  been  accompanied  alternately  by  the  first 
and  third  rule.  By  the  employment  of  the  latter,  the  seventh  appears  in  the  alto. 
Examine  bars  6  and  7,  and  observe  the  different  effects  produced  by  the  same  progres- 
sion of  intervals— by  the  first  rule  at  6  and  by  the  second  rule  at  7.  Which  of  these 
would  the  pupil  prefer?  II 

It  will  be  exceedingly  improving  to  follow  up  what  has  been  here  said,  by  har- 
monizing the  above  (or  any  other  medley)  in  a  variety  of  ways.  For  instance:  let  it  be 
harmonized  first  by  the  first  rule  only;  and  at  that  stage  compare  the  progression  of 
the  harmony  (especially  of  the  inner  parts)  with  the  above  example.*  Afterwards,  har- 
monizing it  again  by  the  second  rule,  comparing  tAai  harmony  with  the  former.  Then 
by  the  third  rule,  and,  lastly,  by  the  fourth  rule;  the  pupil  still  continuing  his  observa- 
tions and  remarks  as  he  proceeds.     Then,  and  perhaps  not  until  then,  will  he  havk 

LBARNED  WHAT  THESE   FEW   SIMPLE   KULES   AEE   CAPABLE   OF   ACCOMPLISH INOf  1  1  1 

Themes  for  Exercise  on  the  Fourth  Rule. 
No.  I. 


^Hv^'N  J  u  ^-r-if-r  ir  ^r^ 


f=^^^=^^ 


^ 


^ 


r,^^^\.y}^{^^^rTtft}\r  r,-  ^  \^^^^ 


N6.  » 


*  See  epecimeni,  Ex.  89,  I,  II. 

t  See  Retroepect,  pages  64  to  56,  and  Ex.  43,  B,  C,  D. 

*  See  consecative  6th  and  8th,  £x.  81.    How  prevented. 


HARMONY    AND    COMPOSITION. 

Enough  has  now  been  said  upon  this  subject  to  guide  the  choiee  on  all  future  occa- 
Bions:  we  shall  only  add,  that,  in  harmonizing  a  medley,  each  interval  should  be  care- 
fully examined,  in  order  to  discover  whether  it  admits  of  two  basses;  and,  if  so,  which 
of  them  will  be  most  effective. 

The  following  specimen  may  probably  suffice  to  show  the  process  of  reasoning  in 
the  selection  of  the  basses: 


^i  r    r    r  I  r    f    r  I  r    ^-^ 


m 


XK.4a. 


Let  as  suppose  that,  in  the  course  of  a  medley,  the  fourth  of  the  scale  were  to  appear  as  in  the 
above  example.    How  ought  we  to  accompany  it  J 

The  Jirsi  P  (bar  1)  we  would  accompany  by  the  second  rule  (the  Dominant),  because  the  second  P 
(bar  2)  ascends,  and  therefore  we  are  c(Wip«W«d  to  accompany  it  by  the  Sub- Domtnajit;  it  is  evident, 
therefore,  that  had  we  accompanied  the  first  F  by  the  Sub- Dominant,  we  should  have  deprived  our- 
eelves  of  the  variety  produced  by  the  harmony  of  the  Dominant,  which  would  have  been  an  error  is 
judgment,  inasmuch  as  neither  of  the  basses  are  absolutely  wrong. 

Would  it  be  permitted  to  accompany  the  descending  fourth  at  a  by  the  first  rale  t 

No  J  because  it  would  produce  consecutive  eighths  with  the  preceding  chord;  therefore  the  fourth 
can  here  be  accompanied  only  according  to  the  second  rule;  viz.,  by  the  Dominant. 

CHARACTER  OP  THE  FOUR  FARTS  IN  HARMONY. 

This  will  show  us  that,  whilst  only  the  first  rule  for  harmonizing  a  melody  was 
known,  little  reflection  was  necessary  to  accomplish  that  end;  but  now  we  are  led  tc 
consider  the  consequences  of  every  step  we  take:  the  melody  must  be  carefull] 
examined;  a  certain  degree  of  foresight  and  circumspection  employed  in  forming  the 
plan  for  the  succession  of  the  several  basses;  and,  finally,  the  judgment  is  called  on 
for  the  selection  of  those  which  are  calculated  to  produce  the  best  effect. 

One  reflection  is  here  very  satisfactory;  viz.  that,  though  it  is  possible  we  may  err 
In  mere  matters  of  taste,  we  are  sure,  by  attending  to  the  rules,  to  be  always  gram- 
mmtically  correct,  and  that  a  moderate  share  of  care  in  the  application  of  those  rules 
already  given  will  produce  results  which  could  be  little  anticipated  by  those  who  have 
studied  harmony  by  any  other  process. 

Definition  of  the  peculiar  Character  of  the  four  Melodies  in  a  Progression  of  Harmony. 
In  order  clearly  to  comprehend  this  subject,  it  is  necessary  again  strongly  to 
Impress  upon  the  mind  of  the  Pupil  the  importance  of  the  chord  of  the  Fundamental 
Seventh,  and  the  almost  irresistible  influence  which  it  exercises  over  the  whole  body  of 
harmony.  That  chord  not  only  invigorates  and  gives  life  to  the  whole,  but  each 
Interval  of  the  chord,  having  its  own  peculiar  progression*,  communicates  to  the  melody 
of  which  it  forms  a  part,  a  character  also  pecuHarly  its  own. 
The  soprano  progression  is  produced,  and  distinguished   from  the  rest,  by  the  two 

intervals  of  the   Dominant  Chord  which  proceed  direct  to  the  octave  of 

the  succeeding  Tonic;  viz.,  the  third  ascending  half  a  tone,  or  the  fifth 

descending.    (Ex.  43,  a,) 
The  alto  progression  is  distinguished  by  the  interval  which  remains  in  its  place  and 

becomes  a  fifth  in  the  succeeding  Tonic  chord.     (6.) 
The  tenor  progression  is  distinguished  by  the  interval   which  proceeds  direct  to  the 

the  third  of  the  Tonic,  whether  descending  from  the  seventh,  or  asce/uiing 

from  the  fifth,    (o.) 

•  Any  deviation  or  departure  from  the  established  and  settled  progression  of  each  of  its  Interrata 
•an  only  be  considered  as  a  licence,  employed  to  produce  some  peculiar  effect.  See  false  cadencea— 
•napended  cadences equivocal  modulation and  deceptive  modulation. 


HARMONY    AND   COMPOSITION. 


63 


The  lass*  progression  is  that  interval  which  ascends  a  fourth,  or  descends  a  fifth;  or,  in 
other  words,  that  which  proceeds  directly  from  Dominant  to  Tonic,    {d.) 
Soprano.  Alto.  Tenor. 


Ex.43. 
A. 


5): 


■:  0 


--^w- 


d. 

Bass. 


w 


The  Pupil  is  here  assured,  that  however  unimportant  the  preceding  matter  may 
appear,  it  is  nevertheless  of  very  great  importance.  Let  him  keep  in  mind,  therefore, 
what  has  been  just  said,  and  he  will  be  enabled  to  enter  still  more  fully  into  the  nature 
and  spirit  of  the  preceding  rules,  and  the  principle  on  which  they  are  founded.  With 
tome  of  the  advantages  resulting  from  their ,  application  in  harmony  he  is  already 
familiar;  but  how  comprehensive  they  are  in  their  object,  and  how  productive  (when 
judiciously  applied)  in  effect,  can  only  be  discovered  and  appreciated  by  those  who 
will  carefitUy  study  and  practice  them ! ! 

It  will  be  found  that,  in  harmonizing  a  melody  by  the  first  rule,  each  of  the  four 
parts  retains  its  peculiar  character  throughout.  (See  Ex.  48,  where  the  seventh  ia 
always  found  in  the  tenor.) 

Prom  this  it  is  evident  that,  had  we  continued  to  harmonize  by  the  first  rule  only, 
monotony  must  have  been  the  result.f  By  the  application  of  the  other  rules,  however, 
a  variety  of  effect  is  produced  by  an  interchange  of  character  among  the  four  parts. 

This  peculiar  interchange  of  character  may,  perhaps,  be  more  clearly  distinguished 
by  directing  the  attention  especially  to  that  part  wherein  the  seventh  of  the  Dominant 
is  found. 

In  Ex.  60  I, 

The  tenor  character  (the  seventh  descending  into  the  third  of  the  Tonic)  is  in  the 
toprano  part. 

The  soprano  character  (the  third  ascending  into  the  octave)  is  in  the  alto  part. 

The  aUo  character  (the  eighth  remaining  in  its  place)  is  in  the  tenor  part. 
The  hass  retains  its  own  character. 

N.  B.     The  above  interchange  of  the  parts  has  been  effected  by  the  second  rule. 

We  may  hereafter  have  occasion  to  observe  more  at  large  on  this  characteristio 
distinction  of  the  four  p  arts;  at  present,  we  shall  content  ourselves  by  giving  the 
following  table,  to  show  the  various  interchanges  which  are  effected  by  the  application 
of  the  four  rules. 

When  harmonizing  by  the  Fi/nt  Rule,  the  7th  will  be  in  the  tenor. 

3rd soprano. 

8th alto.  (Ex.  47,48.) 

When  harmoniang  by  the  Second  Rule,  the  7th  will  be  in  the  soprano. 

3rd alto. 

Sth tenor.    (Ex.5].) 

When  harmonlang  by  the  Hhvrd  Rule,  the  7th  will  be  in  the  alto. 

tSrh soprano. 

3rd tenor.  (Ex.  64,  II.) 

When  harmonizing  by  the  Fourth  Rule,  the  7th  will  be  in  the  alto. 

8th soprano. 

8rd tenor.     (Ex.  56.) 

•  The  fundamental  baes,  of  course. 

t  It  is  true  that  by  inversion  this  monotony  might  be  obviated  ;  but  we  are  not  advanced  yet 
BO  far. 

X  This  admits  of  a  slisht  exception  ;  see  Ex.  32,  bar  2,  where,  the  5th  being  in  the  soprano,  the  .Srd 
la  in  the  alto.    See  alHO  Ex.  43,  bar  1,  where  cousecutive  Sthe  and  8ths  have  been  prevented. 


54 


HARMONY   AXD   COMPOSITION. 


From  all  that  has  been  said  upon  this  subject,  it  is  quite  evident  that,  without 
the  aid  of  the  Fundamental  Seventh,  we  should  have  been  without  any  light  to 
guide  us  on  our  way  through  the  mazes  of  harmony.  Without  the  aid  of  the  four 
rules  for  harmonizing,  we  should  have  remained  ignorant  of  the  variety  which 
has  been  produced  through  their  bi-strnmentaliti/;  for.  let  it  l)e  remembered, 
without  a  single  addition  to  the  three  original  fundamental  l)asses,  and  without 
having  changed  a  single  note  of  the  melody,  we  have  (  merely  by  attending  to  the 
rules )  been  enabled  to  effect  not  only  new  combinations  in  harmony,  but  likewise 
new  proijressionK  in  the  alti)  and  tenor,  which  (  when  we  arrive  at  Inversions  )  shall 
be  introduced  into  the  bass  also. 
A  concise  Retrospect  of  all  the  Four  Bides  in  fiarmonizing,  with  a  few  precautionary 

hints  for  preventing  improper  Progressions,  tvhich  might  occur  by  an  injudicious 

and  indiscriminate  introduction  of  those  Eules  on  some  occasions. 

It  has  been  stated  elsewhere,*  that,  when  only  the  first  rule  of  harmonizing 
was  employed,  no  judgment  was  necessary  in  selecting  the  fundamental  basses: 
the  Pupil,  at  that  stage,  was  ( it  may  l)e  said  )  not  a  free  agent;  for  every  note  in 
the  melody,  according  to  that  rule,  had  its  specific  bass  appointed ;  from  which  he 
was  not  allowed  to  deviate  in  the  slightest  degree. 

By  the  introduction  of  the  second  rule,  however,  his  sphere  of  action  became 
in  some  degree  enlarged  t :  two  basses,  under  certain  circumstances,  might  then 
be  employed  to  accompany  the  sa)t)e  interval  of  the  melody;  and  as  a  choice  was 
thus  presented  to  him,  he  had  to  make  a  selection;  and  as  the  proper  selection 
depended  on  his  own  judgment,  so  the  employment  of  the  second  ride  was  the 
first  step  towards  forming  that  judgment. 

In  illustration  of  this,  we  shall  suppose  the  Pupil  —  in  his  first  effort  to 
harmonize  by  these  rules  —  to  reason  thus:  —  "jEfere  is  the  4th  of  the  scale  (for 
instance),  the  fundamental  bass  of  which  is  the  Sub-Dominant  t " — He  would  then 
carefully  examine  the  progression  of  that  interval, — whether  it  ascended  or 
descended  one  degree.  If  it  ascended,  then  only  one  bass  —  no  choice;  but  if  it 
descended  one  degree —  two  basses  — viz.  Sub-Dominant  and  Dominant  §.  —  "Which 
of  these  shall  I  employ?"  —  (For  let  it  be  remembered  that,  although  the  fourth 
may  descend  one  degree,  he  is  not  compelled  to  employ  the  Dominant;  that  would 
counteract  the  very  object  contemplated.) 

Suppose  that  the  melody  at  I  in  the  following  example  were  pi-esented  to 
him  to  be  harmcmized.  Probably  he  would  reason  thus,  and  say  —  (pointing  at 
bar  I )  —  "  Here  is  the  4th  of  the  scale;  it  descends  one  degi'ee;  I  will  accompany 
it  by  the  second  rule^'  —  ( the  Dominant.)     (See  II.  bar  1.) 


(Pointing  at  2,  he  would  say)  — "Here  the  4th  descends  again;  but  I  will 
now  accompany  it  for  the  sake  of  variety  by  the  first  rule  (the  Sub-Dominant )  ; 
and  at  3  by  both  basses." 

»  .See  page  47.  +  See  pages  4.5  to  4G.  i  Referring  to  the  Jirsl  rule,  which  nnist  constantly  be  kept  in  mind 
beeause  the  others  emanate  from  it.    See  first  rule  of  harmonizing,  page  29.    §  See  second  rule,  page  44. 


HARMONY   AND   COMPOSITION. 


55 


This,  it  is  presumed,  will  suffice  to  show  what  may  he  effected  hy  small  means, 
riz. ,  the  employment  of  the  second  rule. 

By  the  introduction  of  the  third  rule,*  the  sphere  of  action  —  already  enlarged 
by  means  of  the  second  rule  — became  still  more  extended,  and  formed  the  second 
step  towards  the  improvement  of  his  judgment. 

Finally,  by  the  addition  of  the  fourth  r?//e,t  he  was  altogether  emancipated  and 
set  at  liberty  from  the  trammels  in  which  he  was  bound  by  the  observance  of  the 
^firat  rule. 

Let  the  pupil,  however,  remember  tliat  in  proportion  as  this  liberty  opens  an 
extensive  field  for  the  exercise  of  his  mental  faculties,  so,  -in  the  same  proportion, 
will  he  be  liable,  (unless  caution  be  observed),  to  fall  into  error:  for,  to  be  ac- 
quainted with  rules,  to  know  when  and  where  they  can  be  employed,  and  (we 
shall  add)  even  a  knowledge  of  the  variety  of  their  effects,  is  not  sufficient;  care 
also  must  be  taken,  when  they  are  employed,  that  the  purity  of  the  harmony  be 
preserved,  that  no  improper  progressions  (consecutive  5ths  and  8ths)  be  allowed 
to  make  their  appearance.  To  preserve  this  purity  in  the  harmony,  observe  the 
following 

Precautionary  Hints  respecting  the  employment  of  the  Four  Rules. 

We  will  commence  with  the  third  rule.t' 

Let  us  suppose  the  pupil  about  to  harmonize  the  following  example  43  C,  I. 
He  would  reason  thus,  saying  —  "This  is  the  8th;  its  proper  fundamental  bass, 
according  to  the  first  rule,  is  the  tonic, t  but  as  the  8th  is  here  repeated,  I  can 
accompany  it  by  the  suhdominant.%  Is  it  proper  to  do  so?  for,  though  the  8th  is 
repeated,  does  it  follow  that  I  must  necessarily  accompany  it  by  the  suhdominant  f 
If  I  do,  may  it  not  effect  the  purity  of  the  harmony?     How  shall  I  know?" 

These  are  questions  of  no  small  import.  The  answer  is:  Examine  carefully  the 
progression  of  the  melody,  see  whether  the  interval  immediately  following  the  8th  will 
(when  accompanied  by  its  proper  bass)  produce  either  a  consecutive  5th  or  an  Sth. 
Should  this  be  the  case,  the  first  rule  only  must  be  employed. 

At  I,  in  the  following  example,  the  Sth  is  repeated,  and  accompanied  by  the 
third  rule;  but,  as  that  interval  is  followed  immediately  by  E  (the  second  of  the 
scale,  which  requires  to  be  accompanied  by  the  dominant),  the  employment  of  the 
third  rule  is  here  improper,  because  consecutive  5ths  and  8tlis  are  thus  inevitably 
produced.  Under  these  circumstances,  the  first  rule  only  must  be  employed  (as  at 
11). 


At  III,  the  Sth  is  repeated,  and  accompanied  by  the  third  rule;  but  this  note  is 
immediately  followed  by  A  (the  5th  of  the  scale),  and  as  that  interval  requires  the 
tonic,  consecutive  5ths  and  Sths  are  the  result;  therefore,  the  first  rule  only  can  be 
employed  (as  at  IV).  Let  the  pupil  examine  and  make  his  own  observations  upon 
V,  VI,  VII.  —  Q.     May  the  third  rule  be  here  employed  with  propriety? 

Hints  respecting  the  Employment  of  the  Fourth  Rule. 
Looking  at  the  following  Ex.  43,  D  I,  the  pupil  would  say—  "  This  is  the  5th 
of  the  scale;  its  proper  bass  (by  the  first  rule)  is  the  tonic,  but  as  the  fifth  of  the 


Page  47. 


+  Page  50. 


t  See  page  2H. 


I  Page  47. 


56 


HARMONY  AND   COMPOSITION. 


scale  is  here  repeated,  I  may  accompany  it  by  the  dominant."  (Whether  we  should 
do  so,  will  depend  upon  the  intervals  which  follow.)  This  fifth  A  is  repeated;  yet, 
in  consequence  of  the  inteival  which  immediately /oZ/oiu-N,  it  would  be  highly  im- 
proper to  accompany  it  by  the  doiirinant:  because  as  G,  the  4th  (which  here  ascends), 
must  be  accompanied  by  the  sid)d<iminant*  consecutive  5ths  and  8ths  would  be  the 
inevitable  result. 

The  case  is  veiy  different  at  II,  where,  the  4th  having  descended  one  degree 
(thus  admitting  the  introduction  of  the  second  rule),  the  fourth  rule  may  be  legit- 
imately employed  upon  the  5th  of  the  scale. 

At  III,  the  harniony  (though  similar  to  that  at  I)  is  correct,  because  it  proceeds 
by  a  motion  contrary  to  that  of  the  bass. 


In  conclusion,  it  may  be  well  to  observe,  that  the  above  hints,  if  carefully 
attended  to  by  the  pupil,  will  not  only  guard  him  against  gross  faults,  into  which 
young  composers  are  liable  to  fall,  but  they  will  also  add  greatly  to  his  practical 
knowledge  as  regards  the  introduction  of  these  rules  with  the  best  effect:  and 
further,  the  reflections  and  reasons  which  are  here  supposed  to  direct  him  in  the 
choice  of  proper  harmonies,  although  stated  in  a  few  words,  contain  the  (lerin  of 
many  reflections  which,  by  analogy,  may  be  applied  to  other  purposes  besides 
music. 

Major  and  Minor. 

It  has  been  our  object,  from  the  commencement,  to  lead  the  mind  gradually  to 
the  attainment  of  harmonizing  a  melody  in  four  parts.  We  have,  therefore,  care- 
fully avoided  all  matter  which  could  in  the  least  interfere  with  our  object,  or  cause 
the  slightest  embarrassment. 

The  pupil  may  now  be  informed  that  every  exercise  in  which  he  has  hitherto 
been  engaged  was  written  in  what  is  (technically)  called  "  the  major  key,"  in  con- 
tradistinction to  that  called  '^  minor.'"  But,  before  we  proceed  to  the  subject  of 
the  major  and  minor  keys,  it  will  be  proper  to  explain  the  construction  of 

MA.JOR   AND   MINOU   CHORDS. t 

These  terms,  major  and  minor,  refer  here  to  the  third  of  the  chord  only,  which 
is  major  or  minor,  as  it  may  contain  a  (/reater  or  less  number  of  semitones. 

All  the  chords  hitherto  written  have  been  major,  containing.^»e  semitones  in 
the  third,  commencing  with  the  key-note,  and  calling  that  one. 


Ex.  44. 


The  minor  chord  contains  in  its  third,  four  semitones  only  {h),  which,  as  it  has 
one  semitone  less  than  the  major,  is  called  itiinor. 

•  See  Example  42,  and  Remarks. 

+  See  Kx.  144,  where  the  nature  and  origin  of  the  minor  scale  are  fully  treated  upon.    At  the  present  stage. 
It  would  not  be  advisable  to  enter  upon  the  subject. 


HARMONY  AND   COMPOSITION. 


5T 


All  chords  are  understood  to  be  major,  if  not  otherwise  marked  or  expressed. 
To  change  a  major  into  a  minor  chord,  we  have  only  to  lovjer  its  third  a  semi* 
tone,  and  the  chord  becomes  minor,  thus:  — 


What  is  the  chord  of  C? 
What"     "       "       of  C  minor? 
What  is  the  chord  of  D? 
What  "     "       "      of  D  minor? 
What  is  the  chord  of  E  b  ? 
What  "     "       "      of  E  b  minor? 


Answer — C,  E,  and  G. 

C,  Eflat,  and  G. 

Answer — D,  F  jt,  and  A. 

D,  J^,  and  A. 

Answer  —  E  b,  G,  and  B  b. 
Eb,  Gb,  and  Bb. 


In  order  to  accustom  the  ear  to  distinguish  the  difference  of  effect,  a  chord 
should  be  frequently  played  alternately  major  and  minor. 


Major. 


Minor. 


Major. 


Minor. 


Major. 


Minor. 


Ex.45. 


Having  now  fully  explained  the  construction  of  the  minor  chord,  we  will  here 
show,  though  the  svibject  will  be  hereafter  resumed, 

Hoto  to  find  the  Number  of  Sharps  or  Flats  belonging  to  any  Minok  Key. 

For  this  purpose,  it  is  only  necessary  to  ascertain  the  third  of  any  minor  chord, 
and  whatever  sharps  or  fiats  are  required  by  that  third  (if  taken  as  a  major  key- 
note), the  same  number  are  required  for  the  minor. 

At  I,  the  chord  of  C  minor  is  C,  E  b ,  and  G ;  the  third  of  this  chord  is  E  b ;  the  key  of  E  b  requires  three 
flats,  iliiTPfore  tlie  key  of  C  minor  requires  three  flats. 

At  II,  G  minor  requires  two  flats.    Why  ?—  liecause  its  third  (B  b)  requires  two  flats. 

Wliy  does  the  key  of  E  minor  ro(iuire  one  sharp?  —  Because  the  chord  of  E  minor  is  E,  G,  and  B;  G  is  the 
tlnrd,  G  requires  one  sharp,  therefore  E  minor  requires  one  sharp. 

The  Relative  Major  and  Minor  Keys. 

It  is  necessary  to  mention  that  each  major  key  stands  in  intimate  relationship 
with  a  minor  key,  called  its  relative  minor.  This  relative  minor  is  always  found 
four  semitones  beloiu  the  key-note  of  its  major;*  and  has  for  its  signature  always 
the  same  number  of  sharps  or  flats  as  its  major. 

What  is  the  relative  minor  to  C?    Answer  —  A  minor. 

Are  there  any  sharps  or  flats  in  .V  minor?    Answer— No.    Why?  — Because  the  key  of  C  major  has  none. 

W'liat  is  the  relative  minor  to  F?    Answer  —  D  minor. 

How  many  flats  has  D  minor?    Answer  —  One  flat.    Why?  —  Because  F,  its  relative  major,  has  one. 

What  note  Is  flat?    Answer  —  B  b . 

The  following  example  exnibits  a  regular  progression  through  the  whole  circle 
of  major  and  minor  keys.  It  commences  with  the  key  of  C  major  and  its  relative 
minor,  proceeding  through  the  keys  requiring  flats,  which  gradually  increase  iu 

•  The  pupil  may  find  this  minor  key  on  the  pianoforte  by  counting  four  semitones  from  the  key-note  to  the 
left-band,  counting  the  key-note  one. 


S8 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 


number  until,  arriving  at  E  b  minor  (six  flats),  that  chord  is  changed  enharmonic 
cally  to  D  J  minor  (six  sharps) ;  after  which,  by  sharps  (which  gradually  decrease 
in  number)  the  progression  returns  to  the  original  key. 


Ex.  46, 


In  examining  the  preceding  example,  we  perceive,  from  the  beginning  to  the  end, 
not  only  a  beautiful  symmetry  and  regularity  pervading  the  whole,  but  also  a  double 
union  of  intervals —  two  of  them  always  remaining  undisturbed,  —  as  shown  by  the 
curved  lines.*  The  same  union  likewise  subsists  between  the  relative  minor  and 
the  chord  which  immediately  follows  it;  the  whole  progression  forming  a  chain  of 
harmony  unequalled  in  any  of  our  former  exercises. 

The  ijupil  is  strongly  recommended  to  practise  it  on  the  pianoforte,  as  it  forms 
tlie  groundwork  on  which  may  be  constructed  an  almost  infinite  number  of  pas- 
sages and  variations,  serving,  subsequently,  as  materials  for  more  extensive  exer- 
cise. This  will  in  some  measure  appear,  if  we  examine  the  specimens  exhibited 
in  the  following  examples,  which,  though  few  in  number,  are  sufficient  to  show 
the  extensive  variety  of  effect  which  may  be  given,  even  with  only  simple  common 
chords. 

No  particular  rule,  as  to  the  construction  of  all  the  variety  of  passages  arising 
thus  from  a  progression  of  chords  must  here  be  expected,  as  it  would  be  calculated 
rather  to  cramp  than  to  assist  and  expand  the  inventive  faculty  of  the  pupil.  Let 
him  learn  to  choose  for  himself. 

Ex.  47.     A  few  Specimens  of  Variation  which  may  be  employed  in  Performance. 


■"^■»- -g       9 « — c.^ ^ — ^ — »     n 


:t -t-Jt- 


-W~W — fc: 


-t — I h- 


*  Why  this  close  union  subsists  between  the  chords  in  this  progression  will  be  better  understood  when  we 
arrive  at  £z.  b2. 


HARMONY  AND   COMPOSITION. 


59 


ORIGIIV   OF  MELODY  AND  HARMONY, 

THE  DIATONIC  SCALE,  FUxN'DAMENTAL  BASSES, 

AND 

MODULATIO]Sr. 


When  a  musical  string  is  put  into  vibration,  we  may  imagine  that  we  hear 
only  a  single  sound;  but,  on  listening  attentively,  we  shall  discover  that  the  prin- 
cipal sound,  particularly  if  it  be  one  of  the  deep  tones  of  the  pianoforte,  is  accom- 
panied, though  faintly,  by  other  sounds,  called  its  " //(nvHo?ric.s." 

By  all  sonorous  bodies  (a  bell,  for  instance)  the  principal  sound  and  its  har- 
monics are  produced  at  the  same  time,  and  are  all  heard  at  once;  but  by  wind 
instruments  (as  the  French  horn,  trumpet,  etc.)  they  are  produced  separately,  so 
as  to  be  distinctly  analyzed;  and  these  prove  to  be  exactly  the  same,  in  order  and 
proportion,  as  those  produced  by  the  vibration  of  a  musical  string.  Thus  a  tube 
or  string,  whose  lowest  sound  is  C,  will  introduce  the  following 

Hariiionirs, 


Ex.  48. 


P 


=^S=:^- 


^^4 .^^;  •  ■ .     •::•,;•.•;•;  ^  •  •       — ^=^^ 


Generator.  Generator. 

These  are  the  sounds  in  the  order  in  which  they  are  actually  produced  from 
the  tube  of  the  French  horn,  etc.,  etc.* 

The  lowest  sound  we  shall  call  the  foundation  or  generator  of  all  the  rest, 
which  are  called  its  liamionicn,  and  which  appear  to  be,  as  it  were,  regular  portions 
or  fractional  parts  of  the  (/enerator. 

The  first  note  above  the  (/enerator,  being  the  octave  C,  may  be  considered  as 
one  half  of  the  lohole  tube;  in  fact,  one  half  of  this  tube  would  really  produce,  as 
its  lowest  note,  this  very  octave  C. 

By  the  same  rule,  G  would  be  produced  by  a  tube  which  would  be  only  one 
third  the  size  of  that  which  produced  the  generator,  and  so  on  with  the  rest,  as 
marked  in  the  example. 

To  illustrate  this  still  further,  let  us  extend  a  musical  string  over  two  bridges 
until  its  grave  sound  be  the  same  as  that  i^roduced  by  the  tube  C.  If  we  then 
place  another  bridge  exactly  in  the  middle,  each  lialf  will  produce  the  octave  of 
the  whole.  If  we  divide  the  xame  strirH/  into  three  equal  portions,  each  of  the  three 
portions  will  produce  a  G;  and  so  with  all  the  other  divisions. 

•  In  this  example  we  see  at  one  glance  the  chord  of  the  fundamental  seventh,  progression,  modulation, 
melody,  and  harmony. 

(60) 


HARMONY  AXD  COMPOSITION. 


61 


Referring  to  the  scale  of  the  harmonics  in  the  precedinf/j  example,  it  will  be 
remarked,  that  they  are  produced  in  a  succession  of  graduallj^  diminished  dis- 
tances from  each  other,  until  they  end  in  a  i)rogression  of  whole  tones  —  a  real 
diatonic  jirogrt'tision,  thus:  — 

The  note  first  appearing  above  its  generator  is  the  Sth. 
The  next  is  a  5th  above  that. 

The  distance  to  the  next  is  a  4th,  and  the  next  a  major  3rd,  etc,  etc. 
All  the  sounds,  as  far  as  E  (the  last  note  in  the  example),  are  perfect  and  sat- 
isfactory to  the  ear. 

Let  us  now  take  the  three  last  sounds  produced  by  the  tube,  as  a  scale  or  mel- 
ody, and  endeavor  to  harmonize  it.  How  are  we  to  proceed?  We  must  discover 
the  fundameiital  basses;  but  by  what  means? 

Let  us  take,  as  basses,  the  three  first  sounds  produced  by  the  same  tube,  and 
our  object  is  accomplished. 

Scale  of  Three  Sounds  with  its  Fundamental  Basses. 


Ex.  49. 


$ 


e 


i 


Generator.: 


The  fundamental  basses  being  discovered,  we  shall  now  add  the  chords. 


Scale  of  Three  Sounds  Harmonized. 


Ex.  50. 


Generator. 


Referring  again  to  example  48,  \et  it  be  observed  that  amongst  the  harmonics 
of  C,  the  7th  sound  is  B.  This  is  not  the  seventh  note  of  the  scale  of  C,  but  the 
fundamental  1th,  being  a  whole  t(me  below  the  8th.t 

When  the  chord  of  C  is  heard  with  this  seventh  added,  it  at  once  assumes  the 
character  of  a  dominant  chord,  and  thus  produces  an  irresistible  inclination  to 
proceed  to  its  tonic.  The  ear  arknowledf/e.s,  in  the  7th,  a  decided  tendency  to 
descend, i  and  in  the  3rd,  an  equal  tendency  to  ascend  into  the  nearest  sound  of  the 
chord  which  immediately  follows. § 

Therefore,  after  having  harmonized  the  scale  of  three  sounds  produced  by  the 
harmonics  of  the  tube  C  (the  last  of  which  is  accompanied  by  the  chord  of  C), 
were  we  to  bring  the  7th  sound  prominently  forward,  and  add  it  to  this  chord  of 
C  (as  in  the  following  example,  51,  I.),  we  should  be  irresistibly  forced  to  the  chord 
of  F  (as  at  II.). 

•  It  will  be  observed  that  the  chord  of  C,  formed  by  the  harmonies  in  Ex.  .W,  Is  not  complete  until  the 
appearance  of  the  Sril  (El.aiid  theiefoie  when  the  third  is  at  the  top,  we  shall  call  it  the  first  position  of  the 
chord;  when  the  Sth  ((',),  appears  at  the  top,  we  shall  call  it  the  2nd  position  of  the  chord;  and  with  the  8th  at 
the  top,  the  ard  position,     (.''ee  p.  'iti. ) 

t  See  preliminary  observations  on  the  dominant  7th.  page  37. 

1  See  Ex.  27  (b).  §  See  Ex.  27  (a). 


62 


HARMONY   AND   COMPOSITION. 


Thus,  were  we  disposetl  to  extend  the  scale  further  than  these  three  sounds  at 
I.,  the  next  sound,  as  here  pointed  out,  must  decidedly  be  F,  as  in  the  following 
example. 

Having  ascertained  that  our  next  bass  note  can  be  no  other  than  F,  let  us  take 
that  sound  as  a  nev^  generator,  and  treat  it  exactly  as  we  did  the  preceding  one,  C. 
We  have  only  to  consider  this  new  generator  as  a  tube  of  smaller  dimensions,  and 
it  will  give  us,  amongst  its  harmonics,  a  melody  or  scale  of  three  sounds,  viz.,  F, 
G,  A ;  to  which  let  us  write  the  basses,  as  pointed  out  in  example  49,  and  we  shall 
form  a  scale  of  six  notes,  properly  harmonized.* 

Scale  of  Six  Somids. 


Ex.  51. 


=?r 


=&Si 


m 


Generator. 


Generator. 


We  have  now  six  notes,  and,  if  we  desire  to  extend  the  scale  still  further,  to 
what  note  must  we  next  proceed?  — To  B  b.  Why?  —  To  answer  this  question  let 
us  apply  the  same  reasoning  which  guided  us  in  discovering  the  second  generator, 
F. 

The  generator  of  the  last  scale  of  three  sounds  being  F,  let  us  add  the  7th  to 
the  last  chord,  and  the  bass  F,  thus  becoming  a  dominant,  will  lead  us  to  B  b,  and 
thus  we  gain  a  third  scale  of  three  sounds,  viz.,  B  b,  C,  and  D  (as  in  Ex.  52,  A,  bar 
3).  Here  also  another  7th  may  be  added  to  the  last  chord  of  this  scale,  which  will 
lead  us  to  the  scale  of  E  b  (l)ar  4) ;  and  thus  we  might  continue  to  proceed,  adding 
scales  of  three  sounds  ad  Infinitum  A 

Natural  Succession  of  Scales  of  Three  Sounds,  Harmonized. 

S- 


Ex.  52. 


# 


_    b; 


bs    bs 


WE, 


bgg 


±az 


:fe= 


g 


Generator. 


PROGRESSION  AND    MODULATION. 

When  the  harmony  moves  from  one  scale  of  three  sounds  to  another,  without 
the  aid  of  the  chord  of  the  fundamental  7th,  we  shall  call  it  simply  a  Progression. 
(Ex.  52,  B,  a.) 

When  it  thus  moves  by  the  aid  of  the  chord  of  the  fundamental  7th,  we  shall 
call  it  progression  and  modulation,     (h. ) 

♦The  figures  8  5  3,  8  5  3,  pl.iced  over  the  six  notes  in  the  .above  exaniflle,  will  explain  the  principle  upon 
which  the  finding  of  the  fundamental  basses  in  Ex.  10  is  established. 

+  It  appears  clear,  from  this  examination,  that  no  scale  can  naturally  consist  of  more  than  three  soiaids,  for 
which  there  are  only  two  fundamental  basses  required.  The  subdominant,  which  we  have  hitherto  employed, 
Appears  now  to  be  really  the  generator  or  ionic  of  its  own  scale. 


HARMONY  AND   COMPOSITION. 


63 


But  when  it  proceeds  directly  from  the  first  chord  of  a  scale  to  the^r.sf  chord 
of  the  following  scale,  or,  in  other  words,  from  key  to  key,  by  the  aid  of  the  chord 
of  the  fundamental  seventh,  we  shall  call  it  Modulation,     (c). 


Ex.  52. 


3i 


m 


-4-  - 


tiJ=^- 


These  subjects  will  be  resumed  in  their  proper  places;  meanwhile  let  us  apply 
what  has  been  alreadyfsaid,  in  an  examination  of  the  diatonic  scale,  with  which 
this  work  commences. 


Ex.  53. 


In  the  pi'eceding  example,  the  first  three  sounds,  C,  D,  E  (I.),  are  in  the  key  of 
C.  The  harmony  moves  by  j)rv(jression.  until  it  arrives  at  the  third  sound,  E. 
Here,  however,  by  the  introduction  of  the  fundamental  7th,  (B  b),  on  the  chord  of 
C,  a  modulation  to  F  takes  place.     (II.) 

When  we  arrive  at  the  sixth  sound  (A),  the  ear,  as  far  as  regards  the  harmony, 
feels  no  natural  inclination  to  return  to  the  original  key,  as  we  have  modulated  out 
of  that  key;  yet  if  we  are  determined  so  to  do,  we  may  return  to  it,  but  only  by  the 
same  means,  viz.,  modulation;  and,  as  we  modulated  to  F  by  C  (the  dominant  of  F), 
so  we  modulate  back  to  C  by  G,  (the  dominant  of  C).     (III.) 

It  will  now  be  perceived  that,  in  this  case,  the  seventh  note  in  this  scale  could 
not  be  B  b,  as  found  in  example  52.  It  must  here  be  B  D,  because  the  dominant 
chord  of  G,  thus  introduced,  requires  that  its  third  should  be  major,  and  ascend  a 
half-tone  to  its  tonic,  C* 

The  pupil  will  now  see  the  reason  why  the  diatonic  scale  (concluding  upon  the 
note  from  wliich  it  set  out)  requires  the  half-tones  to  be  between  the  ord  and  4tli, 
and  7th  and  8th. 

Thus  we  complete  a  scale  of  eight  sounds,  commencing  and  ending  in  the  same 
key.  Had  we,  on  the  contrary,  after  arriving  at  the  sixth  sound  (A),  proceeded  as 
in  52,  A,  we  should  have  diverged  still  farther  and  farther  from  the  key  from  whicli 
we  set  out;  and,  pursuing  that  course,  we  should  never  liave  been  able  to  arrive 
again  at  the  original  key. 

It  will  now  be  evident  to  the  pui)il  why  it  became  necessary  to  stop  the  mod- 
ulation at  the  sixth  sound.  Here.  also,  lie  will  discover  the  cause  which  produced 
the  consecutive  5th  and  8th  between  tlie  sixth  and  seventh  of  the  scale;  for,  had  we 
continued  the  order  of  progression  pointed  out  iu  Ex.  52,  A,  these  consecutives 
could  never  have  occurred. 


u 


HARMONY   AND  COMPOSITION. 


MODULATION. 

TVe  shall  now  enter  more  fully  on  the  subject  of  modulation ;  it  is  one  of  great 
importance,  and,  in  order  that  the  pupil  may  be  impressed  with  a  correct  idea  of  its 
nature  and  object,  :ind  of  the  extraordinary  influence  which  it  exercises  in  a  well 
constructed  conii)osition,  it  is  only  necessary  to  observe,  that  those  works  which 
lay  the  strongest  claim  to  excellence  have  derived  it  in  a  greater  or  less  degree 
from  this  inexhaustible  source;  more  especially  with  reference  to  modern  compo- 
sitions. 

Here  we  shall  observe  that  progrefision  stands  in  strong  contrast  with  modu- 
lation; for,  whilst  the  former  moves  and  ranges  amongst  the  chords  immediately 
connected  with  the  key  (in  other  words,  its  generator),  or  such  as  are  related  to  it, 
the  latter  at  once  carries  us  out  of  that  key  to  another.  The  principle  by  which 
we  are  to  be  guided  in  modulation,  as  well  as  the  course  to  be  pursued  on  every 
occasion  during  our  progress,  is  pointed  out  by  Nature  herself.  This  fact  has 
now  been  so  Avell  established,  that  it  may  perhaps  be  superfluous  to  refer  to  it 
again.     But  let  us  keep  our  guide  in  view,  and  she  will  not  permit  us  to  go  astray. 

It  may  be  remarked,  that  although  the  modulation  embraces  such  an  impor- 
tant branch  of  harmony,  and  occupies  a  position  of  so  much  consequence,  yet  the 
principle  on  which  it  is  founded  is  exceedingly  simple. 

The  litUe  of  Modulation. 

The  domimutt  of  the  key  to  which  we  intend  to  modulate,  must  be  introduced 
immediately  before  that  key. 

By  way  of  illustration,  let  us  select  the  three  first  bars  of  example  61,  which 
contain  2i  progression  through  all  the  major  and  minor  keys. 


Ex.  54. 


How  shall  we  change  the  exercise  of  progression  at  X,  in  the  above  example, 
into  one  of  modulation  —  what  says  the  rule? 

Place  the  dominant,  E  (I.),  before  the  chord  of  A  minor,' and  the  dominant  C 
(II.),  before  F,  and  thus  the  progression  will  be  changed  into  modulation  at  Z.* 

Let  us  again  illustrate  this  by  the  following  interrogatory.  Suppose  we  are 
in  the  key  of  F,  and  would  modulate  to  the  key  of  D  minor;  what  bass  must  we 
introduce  before  D?    Answer,  A. 

Q.     Why? 

Because  A  is  dominant  to  D,  whether  that  key  be  major  or  minor. 

Q.  We  are  now  in  the  key  of  D  minor,  and  would  modulate  to  B  b ;  what  bass 
must  we  introduce  before  B  b? 

Answer,  F. 

Q.     Why? 

Because  F  is  dominant  to  B  b. 

*  When  we  modulate  lo  a  minor  key,  tlie  7th  will  descend  a  whole  tone,  instead  of  half  a  tone.    See  page  39. 
Let  us  keep  in  mind  that,  whether  we  modulate  to  a  major  or  minor  key,  the  dumiiiani  chord  muxt  always 
be  major. 


HARMONY  AND   COMPOSITIOiSr.  65 

In  the  preceding  example  we  have  shown : 

1st.  The  nature  of  modulation,  by  placing  it  in  contradistinction  with  jjro- 
gression. 

2nd.  The  rule  by  which  modulation  is  to  be  effected  when  the  key  has  been 
proposed  by  the  preceptor. 

But  let  it  be  remembered  that  it  is  one  thing  to  find  the  dominant  when  the 
key  to  which  it  is  proper  to  modulate  is  proposed  by  the  teacher,  and  quite  another 
thing  when  the  pupil  himself  is  required  to  find  the  key  to  which  he  may  mod- 
ulate. 

The  rules  by  which  he  may  accomplish  this  object  shall  now  be  given,  and  we 
will  here  again  repeat  what  we  have  so  frequently  endeavored  to  impress  upon  the 
mind  of  the  pupil,  that  Nature  alone  is  our  instructress;  if,  on  a  former  occasion, 
this  fact  has  been  clearly  evidenced,  then  the  present  investigation  will  still  more 
clearly  demonstrate  that  the  principles  of  modulation  emanate  from  the  same 
source. 

It  has  been  shown  elsewhere  that  nature,  in  developing  the  principles  of  har- 
mony, in  the  vibration  of  sonorous  bodies,  etc.,  etc..  produces  certain  sounds, 
which,  in  their  progression,  not  only  form  melodies,*  but  also  form  a  union  among 
themselves  as  chords,  with  which  these  melodies  are  accompanied.!  These  chords 
in  their  progression,  thus  forming  harmony,  participate  in  this  unity,  much  in  the 
same  manner  as  do  the  sounds  of  which  the  chords  are  constructed,  t 

RELATIONSHIP   OF   KEYS    BY    MODULATION. 

This  will  be  rendered  plain  by  the  following  diagram :  — 

Scale        .        .        .        c       d        e  f       g       a 


1  I 

3  8        5        3 

Chords    ...       '5        3        8  538 

(3        8        5  3        8        5 

Fundamental  Basses      c       g        e  f        c        f 

Generators    .        .     C  F 

If  we  examine  the  upper  row  of  the  horizontal  figures,  commencing  with  8,  5, 
3  (which  point  out  the  true  fundamental  basses), §  we  shall  find.  l)y  looking  from 
C,  at  the  figures  8,  5,  3,  downwards,  that  they  are  the  same  figures,  and  express  the 
identical  intervals,  or  sounds,  of  the  common  chord  of  that  note.ll 

If  we  commence  at  D,  the  second  note  in  the  scale,  tlie  horizontal  figures  will 
be  5,  3.  8.  The  last  figure  (8)  is  the  first  link  which  unites  the  first  generator  to  the 
second.  Looking  downwards,  the  .same  figures  express  the  common  chord  of  the 
bass  of  that  note. 

Let  us  commence  at  E  (the  third  note  in  the  scale).  3,  8,  5,  are  the  horizontal 
figures;  the  two  last  of  which,  8,  5,  form  two  links  more  in  uniting  the  first  gen- 
erator with  the  second.  We  shall  find  the  same  figures  express  the  intervals,  or 
sounds  of  the  notes  of  that  chord  by  looking  downwards. 

Here  we  find  that  the  generator  C  is  as  closely  interwoven  with  the  generator 
F,  its  dominant  and  harmonies,  as  C,  the  former,  is  with  its  donmiant  and  harmonies. 

*  See  n.irmonics,  Ex.  48,  49.  t  See  Ex.  50.  t  See  Harmony  in  four  parts,  Ex.  16. 

§  See  Ex.  49.  ||  Ex.  50. 


66 


HAKMONY   AXD   COMPOSITION. 


The  first  of  these  generators  is  the  dominant  to  the  second  generator,  F.*  Whether 
we  view  these  figures  horizontally,  ohliqiwly,  ov i)erpendiculayly ,  they  alwayi<  form 
the  common  cliord,  as  produced  by  the  vibration  of  a  string,  etc. 

From  what  has  been  stated,  would  it  not  appear  that  there  are  certain  keys, 
also,  which  stand  in  as  immediate  relationslnp  with  each  other  as  the  aforesaid 
chords  do  in  tlieir  progression?  And  tliat  this  is  tlie  fact,  shall  be  fully  and  practi- 
cally demonstrated  as  we  proceed. 

That  modulalion  can  be  ett'ected  only  by  the  <lonnnunt  cliord  of  the  key  to  ichich 
loe  modulate,  is  pointed  out  to  us  l)y  nature,  and  illustrated  at  Ex.  07  B,  and  70. 

The  discovery,  therefore,  of  a  dominant,  by  which  we  shall  be  enabled  to  mod- 
ulate/ro?H  a  given  key  to  one  of  those  which  stand  in  relationship  with  that  given 
key,  is  a  matter  of  the  first  importance,  and  it  may  be  said  that  in  this  consists  the 
whole  mystery  of  modulation. 

Considering  the  subject  in  this  point  of  view,  then,  let  us  examine  the  chord 
of  the  key,  from  which  we  are  about  to  modulate,  and  see  whether  we  can  discover 
a  sound  in  that  chord,  which,  bj"^  being  employed  as  a  dominant,  will  guide  us  to 
a  key  with  which  the  given  key  stands  related;  and  as  such  dominant,  when  once 
discovered,  stands  in  the  same  relation  as  the  liranch  does  to  the  tree,  or  a  child 
to  its  parent,  no  doubt  could  exist  as  to  the  relationship  subsisting  between  the 
given  key  and  the  dominant  so  found.  Now,  that  these  dominants  may  be  discovered 
thus,  will  be  evident  if  we  attend  to  the  following  simple  process. 

We  shall  suppose  ourselves,  for  example,  to  be  in  the  key  of  C;  the  pupil 
wishes  to  know  to  what  key  he  may  modulate. 


Ex.  55.  ( 


Let  him  select  the  .3rd  (E)  of  the  chord  C,  in  bar  I.  Write  it  in  the  bass  (at 
2),  add  the  chord  of  the  fundamental  7tli,  and  resolve  it  (ato).  By  this  process, 
he  is  enabled  to  modulate  to  a  key  which  stands  in  the  closest  relationship  with 
the  given  key;  viz.,  its  relative  minor,  A. 

Q.     Why?     Because  the  3rd  of  the  chord  of  C  is  E,  and  E  is  dominant  to  A.t 

Observe,  we  are  now  in  tlie  key  of  A  minor;  but  how  shall  we  return  to  the 
original  key  of  C?  Does  the  chord,  from  which  we  selected  our  first  dominant, 
furnish  any  note  by  which,  as  a  dominant,  that  object  may  be  effected? 

Yes;  the  pupil  has  only  to  select  the  Jjth,  G,  of  that  chord,  and,  as  G  is  domi- 
nant to  C,  he  is  enabled  to  modulate  back  again  to  the  original  key  of  C  (at  5). 

From  what  has  been  shown  above,  the  intelligent  pupil  may  perhaps  have 
already  anticipated  that—  selecting  the  octave  C  (the  key  from  which  we  originally 
modulated)  as  a  dominant,  will  enable  him  to  modulate  to  F,  the  subdominantj 
(at  7),  and  by  again  selecting  the  .5th,  (G)  of  the  original  key,  modulate  back  to  C.§ 

*  Do  we  not  here  clearly  perceive  the  origin  of  the  Tetrachord  as  well  as  the  ilexachord  of  the  ancients;  the 
former  ending  with  the/ourth  sound,  and  the  latter  with  the  sixth?  See  Ex.  52.  .\  and  B.  And  whether  Guido 
was  the  discoverer  of  it  or  not.  one  thing  is  certain:— that  those  scales  and  their  harmonies  are  as  old  as  Creation 
itself. 

t  See  Ex.  .59.    The  above  modulation  miiy  be  considered  as  the  first  fruits  arising  out  of  this  fruitful  soil. 

i  See  Ex.  58. 

§  That  the  5th  of  the  chord  cannot  be  employed  thus  at  the  commencement  will  be  self  evident,  when  we 
consider  thutthat  Htb  is  the  dominant  of  its  own  key,  which,  while  it  governs  the  key,  effectually  prevents  a  mod- 
alation  out  of  it. 


HARMONY  AND   COMPOSITION.  67 

Thus  an  important  and  unerring  jirinciple  in  modulation  is  established,  viz., 
/  at 

A  major  common  chord  contains  within  itself  the  germ  of  three  modulations: 
1st.     A  modulation  to  its  relative  minor,  as  above  at  bar  3. 

2nd.    to  its  subdominant,     7. 

3rd.    back  to  its  own  key,   5  —  9. 

The  following  yeneral  observations  require  to  be  carefully  attended  to  by  the 

pupil,  as  we  shall  have  frequent  occasion  to  refer  to  them. 

(m)  When  we  select  the  3rd  of  a  major  keij  we  ought  to  modulate  to  a  minor  key.* 

See  bar  3. 

()i)  When  we  select  the  3rd  of  a  minor  key  we  ought  to  modulate  to  a  major  key. 

See  bar  5. 

(o)  When  we  select  the  8th  of  a  major  key  we  ought  to  modulate  to  a  major  key. 

See  bar  7. 

(p)  When  we  select  the  8th  of  a  minor  key  we  ought  to  modulate  to  a  minor  key. 

See  bar  10. 


Ex.  56. 


For  further  illustration  of  what  has  been  said,  we  shall  now  proceed  to  give  a 
short  practical  exercise  on  this  interesting  subject  —  preparatory  to  which  it  will 
be  necessary  to  state : 

1st.  That  we  may  commence  our  exercise  with  any  key,  and  select  for  domi- 
nants any  interval  of  the  chord  we  please,  except  the  5th  of  the  tonic.  Why?  — 
Because  that  interval  is  the  dominant  of  the  existing  key,  and  therefore  cannot,  of 
course,  carry  us  out  of  it;t  but,  when  we  have,  by  either  of  the  other  two  intervals, 
modulated  out  of  a  key,  then  the  5th  enables  us  to  modulate  immediately  back  to 
that  key.  See  Ex.  71,  where  (at  3)  we  modulated  to  A  minor,  and  (at  5)  returned 
to  the  original  key. 

2nd.  When  a  modulation  out  of  the  original  key  has  been  effected,  and  we 
desire  still  further  to  continue  the  modulation,  then  the  key  at  which  we  have 
arrived  must  be  treated  in  the  same  manner  as  if  we  had  commenced  with  it.  See 
Ex.  72,  .where  (at  3)  we  modulated  to  A  minor,  and  then,  selecting  the  3rd  of  that 
chord,  modulated  (at  5)  to  F,  etc. 

The  following  exercise  commences  in  the  key  of  G;  the  first  three  chords  pro- 
ceed by  progression.  J 

At  3,  we  have  selected  the  octave,  and  modulated  to  C  major.  (Why  to  G 
major?  §) 

At  6,  we  have  selected  the  5th  of  the  original  key  (viz.,  D)  and  modulated  back 
toG. 

At  7,  we  have  selected  the  major  .3rd  (B),  which  modulates  (at  9)  to  E,  the 
relative  minor  of  C.     (Why  to  a  minor?  \\ ) 

At  9,  we  have  chosen  the  8th,  E,  and  modulated  (at  11)  to  A  minor.  —  (Why  to 
a?ninor?1f) 


♦  Because  it  is  the  relative  minor. 

%  See  Progression  and  JlodulaUOU;  page  61-62. 

II  See  observation  (mj. 


t  See  note,  bottom  of  p.  66. 

§  See  ooservations  (o)  before  Ex.  Sb. 

1  See  oUaervalion  \.p). 


68 


HARMOXY   AKD   COMPOSITION. 


Here  we  have  selected  the  3rd,  C,  and  modulated  (at  13)  to  F  major.  —  (Why  to 
a  major?*} 

The  rest  of  the  example,  it  is  presumed,  will  be  understood  without  any 
explanation,  t 


Ex.  57. 


If  the  pupil  has  carefully  attended  to  the  preceding  matter  —  studied  the 
examples  —  and  reflected  upon  all,  he  must,  ere  this,  have  observed  how  clear,  how 
explicit  the  rules  are  which  nature  unfolds  for  our  guidance  in  this  branch  of  the 
science;  and,  whether  we  contemplate  them  abstractedly  as  to  their  beauty  and 
symmetry,  or  listen  to  the  effect  which  they  produce  when  played,  we  cannot  but 
admire  and  wonder  at  that  simple  source  from  which  all  emanate.  The  truth  of 
this  observation  will  be  better  understood  as  we  proceed;  because,  as  yet,  we  have 
introduced  as  specimens,  such  inodulations  only  as  are  derived  from  the  intervals 
of  a  tonic  chord;  but  as  the  intervals  of  the  chords  of  the  dominant  and  subdomi- 
nant  may  be  employed  in  a  similar  manner,  a  system  of  modulation  will  be  developed, 
which,  when  thoroughly  understood  and  carried  out  into  practice,  cannot  fail  to 
prove  highly  interesting  and  satisfactory  to  every  lover  of  music. 

In  Ex.  51,  all  the  modulations  arising  from  the  intervals  of  the  tonic  chord 
were  exhibited,  in  order  that  the  pupil  might  thus  be  enabled  at  once  to  form  a 
general  idea  of  the  principle  upon  which  this  system  of  modulation  is  established. 

In  the  following  examples,  however,  the  modulation  arising  from  the  3rd  and 
8th  of  this  chord  shall  be  treated  separately,  as  he  will  thus  be  enabled  still  more 
clearly  to  distinguish  the  peculiar  effect  of  the  modulation  produced  through  the 
instrumentality  of  either  one  or  the  other. 

We  shall  commence  our 

Modulation  by  selecting  the  Octave  of  the  Tonic  as  a  Dominant.  § 
By  pursuing  this  process,  we  continue  to  modulate  to  the  subdominant  of  the 
original  key  (or,  in  other  words,  to  a  key  which  is  a  4th  above  ||  that  from  which 
we  set  out),  and  are  led  through  the  whole  of  the  keys  which  require  flats,  until 
(after  having  made  an  enharmonic  change  at  G-flat)  we  return  again  to  C,  through 
keys  which  require  sharps.  1^ 

*  See  observation  (n). 

t  See  inversions  of  the  first  seven  bars  of  this  Ex.,  at  Ex.  72,  D  and  E. 

i  Except  the  7th. 

§  This  is  the  first  modulation,  as  pointed  out  to  us  by  nature  (see  example  52,  A). 

II  Or  5th  below,  which  is  the  same. 

T  If  the  pupil,  however,  chooses  to  continue  the  exercise  without  making  an  enharmonic  change  (which,  by 
way  of  practice,  will  be  very  useful),  it  will  conduct  him  tlirough  all  the  keys  requiring  doublejtats,  and  he  will 
arrive  at  D  double  flat. 


HAKMONY  AND   COMPOSITION. 

2.  3.  ,4-  5-  6, 


Ex.58. 


In  the  preceding  example  we  commence  in  the  key  of  C  major,  and  select  the 
octave  C  (at  1).  C  is  dominant  to  F,  therefore  we  modulate  to  F  major  (at  3). 
Here  we  select  the  octave  and  modulate  to  B-fiat  major  (at  5).  An  enharmonic 
change  takes  place  (at  13)  from  G-flat  to  F-sharp,  and  thus,  by  continuing  the 
same  process,  we  modulate  back  to  C. 

We  shall  now  select  the  same  interval,  viz.,  the  octave  from  a  minor  key,  the 
effect  of  which  will  be  found  very  different  to  that  of  the  preceding  example. 

In  the  following  Ex.  we  commence  in  the  key  of  A  minor,  and  select  the  octave 
A.     A  is  dominant  to  D;  we  therefore  modulate  to  D  minor.* 

The  process  in  the  following  example  is  similar  to  that  in  the  preceding,  with 
this  exception,  that  the  modulation  proceeds  through  minok  keys,  and  in  the  for- 
mer through  MAJOK  keys : 


The  pupil  is  particularly  recommended  to  play  all  these  exercises,  in  order  that^ 
he  may  become  practically  aeijuainted  with  their  various  effects. 
We  shall  now  continue  our 

Modulation  by  selecting  the  tuird  of  the  Tonic  as  a  Dominant. t 

By  pursuing  this  process  we  are  enabled  to  modulate  through  all  the  major  and 
minor  keys,  t 

We  shall  here  repeat  tlie  observations  made  after  example  41,  as  they  are  of 
importance. 

When  we  select  a  major  3rd,  we  ought  to  modulate  to  a  minor  key. 

When  we  select  a  minor  3rd,  we  ought  to  modulate  to  a  major  key. 


pggp^^jgi^ 


Ex.59. 


E^. 


^^ 


^ 


\    I 


|7T 


•  See  Inversions  of  the  first  eight  bars  of  the  above  exercise,  Ex.  72,  F. 

t  This  is  the  second  modulation  arising  out  of  this  principle.    See  example  40,  and  explanation. 

t  Sffi  example  46,  where  those  keys  are  exhibited  in  progression,  and  compare  thai  exMniple  with  4^ 


10 


HARMOXY  AXD  rOMPOSTTTO:^^. 


N.B.     Let  the  pupil  finish  this  exercise  liimself. 

It  has  been  stated  (page  68)  that  the  intervals  of  the  chord  of  the  dominant  and 
SUbdoiinnant  may  likewise  he  employed  as  dominants. 

It  is  necessary  to  bear  in  mind  what  has  already  been  stated  in  pages  56  and 
57.  From  what  has  been  there  shown  by  several  practical  illustrations,  it  appears 
evident  that  the  name  connection  which  is  found  to  exist  between  intervals  forming 
the  rhnrcl  of  the  tonic,  exists  also  between  the  three  fundamantal  basses  —  tome, 
doiniuant,  and  snbdominant. 

If  this  fact  be  kept  in  view,  it  will  at  once  be  understood  how  it  is  that  those 
keys,  which  are  related  by  modui.atiox  to  the  tonic,  (as  shown  in  the  preceding 
example)  must  necessarily  be  related  by  modulation  to  those  keys  which  arise  out 
of  the  intervals  of  the  dominant  and  sufidoniinant  also;  although  not  in  the  same 
degree  of  ajjiniti/  as  those  which  immediately  emanate  from  the  chord  of  the  tonic. 
With  this  view,  we  shall  now  proceed  to  select  the  intervals  of  the  dominant  chord, 
recollecting  that  the  fifth*  and  third  only  can  be  employed  as  dominants  on  this 
occasion. 

Modulation  by  selecting  the  fifth  of  the  Dominant  as  a  Dominant,  t 

It  is  r.ecessary,  when  modulating  thus,  that  the  dominant  of  the  key  from 
which  we  modulate  be  constantly  kept  in  view;  because  here  we  have  no  visible 
intervals  from  which  to  select  our  dominants,  as  in  the  preceding  exercise. 

The  dots  in  the  following  example  point  out  the  dominant  of  the  key,  and  also 
the  fifth  of  that  dominant  which  is  here  selected  as  a  dominant. 


Ex.  6o. 


By  this  process  we  modulate  from  a  given  key  to  its  dominant;  for  instance, 
from  C  (1)  we  modulate  to  G;  from  hence  to  D  (7),  and  thus  we  may  modulate 
through  the  whole  circle  of  keys. 


TO  rut:  rrPiL.t 

Explain  how  j-ou  can  modulate  from  C  to  G. 

At;(l)  I  am  in  the  key  of  C,  the  dominant  of  which  is  G  (2).    The  5th  of  G  is  D  (2). 
(3),  therefore  I  can  modulate  to  G  (4). 

By  a  similar  process  we  have  modulated  to  !).§ 


T>  is  dominant  to  G 


OBSERVATION. 

When  we  modulate  from  a  major  key,  as  above,  we  ar/ain  modulate  to  a  major  key  (X). 
When  we  modulate  from  ft  nuwor  key,  we  again  modulate  to  a  minor  key  (Y).    Let  the  pnpilp^ay  the  above 
esercise,  and  compare  the  effect  produced  at  (X)  with  (Y). 


•  Why  cannot  the  8th  be  thus  employed?  Because  that  interval  is  the  dominant  to  the  key  from  which  we 
set  but. 

t  This  is  the  third  modulation  arising  out  of  this  principle. 

i  As  the  bass  in  the  above  modulation  ascends  one  degree,  it  is  necessary  that  the  harmony  proceed  by  con- 
trary motion,  to  prevent  consecutive  5ths  and  Sths. 

§  This  method  of  tuition  will,  on  all  occasions,  be  found  most  efScacious;  it  throws  the  student  back  upon 
his  own  resources,  and  compels  him  to  reflect. 


HARMONY  AKD   COMPOSITION. 

Modulation  by  selecting  the  third  of  the  Dominant  as  a  Dominant.* 


7J 


Ex.  6i. 


N.  B.     By  this  process  we  modulate  to  the  key  of  the  third  above. 

Explain  how  you  modulate  from  C  to  E  minor. 

At  (1)  I  am  in  the  key  of  C  major,  the  dominant  of  which  is  G  (2,  see  dot).  The  3rd  of  G  is  B  (2,  see  dot), 
B  is  dominant  to  E  (3) ;  therefore,  etc.,  etc. 

N.F.  When  we  select  the  third  of  the  dominant  (as  in  the  preceding  example), 
no  connecting  link  is  found  between  the  'key  from  which  we  modulate  and  the  sub- 
sequent dominant;  yet,  to  that  verij  circumstance  we  are  indebted  for  a  beauty  and 
effect  which,  when  mingled  with  other  modulations,  is  quite  peculiar  to  itself;  it  is 
highly  characteristic  of  boldness  and  independence. t 

OBSEKVATION. 

When  we  are  in  a  major^key,  and  modulate  as  above,  we  proceed  to  a  minor 
key,  X. 

But  when  we  are  in  a  minor  key  we  modulate  to  a  major  key,  as  at  T.  N.B. 
In  the  latter  case,  the  third  thus  selected  must  always  be  considered  as  minor. 

The  following  example  exhibits  a  mixed  modulation,  arising  from  the  intervals 
of  the  tonic  and  dominant  choi 


Ex.  bz. 


At  1,  has  been  selected  the  3rd  of  the  tonic,  a  major  chord  modulates  to  minor. 

At   3, the  5th  of  the  dominant,  from  a  minor  chord,  modulates  again  to  a  minor  at  5. 

At  5, the  8th  of  the  tonic, to  a  minor  at  7. 

At  8, the  3rd  of  the  dominant, to  a  major  at  •3. 

At  10, the  Xtti  of  the  tonic,  from  a  major  chord, to  a  major  at  11. 

At  12, the  5th  of  dominant,  ■   to  a  major  at  13. 

We  shall  now  continue  our 

Modulation  by  selecting  the  octave  of  the  subdominant  for  a  Dominant.§ 

N.B.  Here,  as  well  as  in  the  preceding  modulation,  we  have  no  visible  intervals 
from  which  to  make  our  selection;  therefore  the  subdominant  of  the  key  from  which 
we  modulate  must  be  carefully  kept  in  mind. 

•  This  is  the  fourth  modulation  arising  out  of  this  princii)le. 

t  When  we  modulate  thus,  let  the  5th  of  the  chord  ascend.    H.B.  The  7tU  iaa,y,  ou  UU8  OCcasiOOi  be  permit 
ted  to  ascend  to  the  5th,  the  octave  being  omitte  d    See  Ex.  b8,  Q, 
t  See  Weber's  Overture  to  the  Freyschiitz, 
i  This  is  the  fifth  modulation  arising  out  of  this  principle. 


72 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 


Ex.  63. 


Pupil.— At  X,  bar  1, 1  am  in  tbe  key  of  F-aharp  major,  the  suhdominant  of  which  is  B  (2).    B  is  dominant 

to  E,  and  therefore  I  am  enabled  to  modulate  from  F-sharp  to  E  (8).    The  mbdominant  of  E  Is  A  (4) ;  A  18  dom- 
inant to  D  (5) ;  therefore,  etc. 

OBSERVATION. 

Wlien  we  modulate  thus/j*o»i  a  major  key,  we  modulate  again  to  a  major  key, 
X.     (See  0,  p.  68). 

And  from  a  minor  again  to  a  minor. key,  Y.     (See  p,  p.  08.) 

By  this  process  we  modulate  to  a  key  which  is  a  whole  tone  t>elow  a  given  key; 
for  instance,  from  F-sharp  at  1,  we  modulate  to  E,  at  3,  from  E  to  D,  etc. 

The  pupil  ought  to  continue  this  process  through  all  the  major  keys,  as  at  X, 
and  through  all  the  minor  keys,  as  at  Y,  and  by  making  an  enharmonic  change,  he 
will  return  again  to  the  original  key.  (See  example  .58,  A,  which  bears  a  strong  re- 
semblance to  this. ) 

We  shall  now  continue  our 

Modulation  by  selecting  the  //;/)vf  of  the  suhdominant  for  a  Domikant.* 


Ex.  64. 


Pupil.    I  am  in  the  key  of  C  (bar  1),  the  suhdominant  of  which  is  F  (2,  see 
dot).     A,  the  3rd,  is  dominant  to  D  (3),  therefore  I  modulate  to  D  minor  (4). 


OBSERVATION. 

1st.  In  selecting  the  major  third  (2)  of  the  suhdominant,  we  modulate  to  a  minor 
key  (4t).  We  may  indeed  occasionally  modulate  to  a  major  key  (as  at  10);  the 
former,  however,  as  being  the  relative  minor  to  the  suhdominant,  is  preferable ;  it 
produces  the  better  effect. 

2nd.  It  is  necessary  to  observe  that  when  the  key  is  minor,  the  chord  of  the 
suhdominant  requires  to  be  a  minor  chord  likewise  (.5).  And,  further,  that  when 
we  select  the  minor  3rd  of  the  suhdominant,  we  modulate  to  a  major  key  (7).t 
For  example,  at  4,  we  modulated  to  D  miiior,  the  suhdominant  of  which  is  G;  and 
as  this  must  be  a  minor  chord,  we  have  been  enabled,  by  selecting  the  third,  B-flat 
(6),  as  a  dominant,  to  modulate  to  E-flat  major  (7). 

It  has  been  shown  that,  by  selecting  the  intervals  of  the  chords  of  the  three 
fundamental  has.^es,  dominants  may  be  found  by  which,  without  the  slightest 
apprehension  or  chance  of  a  mistake,  we  are  enabled  to  modulate,  not  only  direct 

•  This  is  the  sixth  and  last  modulation  arising  out  of  this  principle, 
t  See  (m)  page  68.  t  See  (n)  page  68. 


HA.KMONY  AXD   COMPOSITIOISr. 


73 


to  those  keys  which  arise  out  of,  and  are  immediately  related  to  the  tonic,  but  to 
those  also  which  are  derived  from  the  dominant  and  subdominant. 

The  following  exercise  may  be  viewed  as  an  epitome  of  all  the  preceding.     It 
contains  the  six  modulations  arising  out  of  the  intervals  of  the  above  three  chords. 
When  all  these  six  modulations  are  introduced  in  immediate  succession,  the  exer- 
cise will  conclude  in  the  same  key  as  that  from  tvhich  it  originally  set  out. 
2.        3.        4.        5.        6.        7.     ,  8.        9. 


Ex.  65. 


The  preceding  eiampJe  begins  and  ends  in  the  key  of  C. 

At    1,  we  have  selected  the  3id  of  the  subdominant,  and  modulated  to  D  minor  at  3. 


3, 
5, 
7, - 
9, 
11,  - 


-5th  of  dominant, 

-  8th  of  the  tonic, 

-  3rd  of  the  tonic, 

-  3rd  of  dominant  (a) 
Sth  of  subdominant  (g) 


■  A  minor  at  5. 
•  D  minor  at  7. 

■  B-flat  major  at  9. 
■D  minor  at  11. 

C  major  at  13. 


It  matters  not  in  what  key  the  pupil  commences  the  exercise,  or  the  order  in  which  he  chooses  to  select  his 
dominants;  if  he  but  carefully  attend  to  the  directions  pointed  out,  he  will  assuredly  be  guided  back  to  the  key 
from  which  he  set  out. 

TWO   KEYS   TO   WHICH   NO   DIRECT    MODL'LATION   CAN   BE   EFFECTED. 

On  a  critical  and  careful  review  of  the  preceding  examples,  we  find  that,  with 
the  exception  of  two  keys,  we  have  been  enabled  to  modulate  direct  to  all  the 
others,  whether  major  or  minor.  The  first  of  these  exceptions  refers  to  the  key 
which  is  diametrically  opposite  to  the  one  in  which  we  then  find  ourselves;  the. 
other  is  a  half-tone  helow  that  key. 

It  is  curious  to  observe  how  nature  has  excluded  these  two  very  modulations, 
which  would  produce  upon  the  ear  an  effect  at  once  harsh  and  discordant.  Xo  in- 
terval is  found  among  the  chords  of  the  three  fundamental  basses,  which  enables  us 
to  modulate  direct  to  their  keys.  This  is  a  remarkable  fact;  which,  when  coupled 
with  what  has  been  said  immediately  preceding,  example  65,  may  serve  as  an 
additional  proof  (if  it  were  necessary)  of  the  unerring  principles  on  which  these 
modulations  are  established. 

In  order  to  illustrate  what  we  mean  by  a  key  diametrically  opposite  to  another, 
let  us  di-aw  a  circle  and  di^^de  it  into  twelve  equal  portions,  placing  C,  the  natural 
key,  at  the  top,  which,  if  we  please,  we  may  call^the  north  pole.  The  portions  on 
the  right,  gradually  approximating  from  the  east  to  the  south  pole,  may  represent 
those  keys  which  have  sharps;  and  those  on  the  left  by  the  west,  the  keys  which 
have  flats. 


Flats 


3    Sharps. 


The  pupil  is  recommended  to  play  these  modulations  with  variations,  as  exhibited  in  example  23. 


74 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 


Here  it  is  plain  that,  when  we  proceed  towards  the  rUjht,  the  key  diametrically 
opposite  to  C  is  F-sharp;  but,  when  to  the  U\ft,  the  opposite  key  will  be  (i-tiat.  li 
we  consider  this  circle  as  representin<j  the  map  of  the  world,  then  F-sharp  or  G-tlac 
are  the  antipodes  to  C;  G  the  antipodes  to  D-flat,  etc.  In  order,  therefore,  to  dis- 
cover the  antipodes  to  any  given  key,  (requiring  s/iarps)  it  is  only  necessary  to 
deduct  the  number  of  sharps  which  the  key  requires  from  six,  and  the  reinahuler 
will  point  out  its  opposite  key  with.^f(f.s.  For  example:  G  has  one  sharp;  deduct 
one  from  six.  and  five  remains;  —  what  key  requires  five  flats?  Answer,  D-flat. 
Then  that  is  the  opjiosite  key. 

The  key  of  B  has  five  sharjis ;  deduct  five  from  .s(.r,  and  one  remains  :  —  What 
key  has  one  fiat?    Answer,  F. 

What  is  the  opposite  key  to  E-flat.  Answer,  A.  Why?  Answer,  E-flat  has 
three  flats  —  three  from  six,  and  three  remains.  The  key  of  A  requires  three  sharps, 
and  that  is  the  opposite  key  to  E-flat. 

Again,  N.B.  l.s^  To  keys  which  are  diametrically  opposite  to  each  other,  nature 
has  forbidden  us  to  modulate. 

2nd.  To  the  key  which  is  found  a  half  tone  heloio  a  given  key  (the  second  objec- 
tionable key)  we  cannot  modulate  direct,  because  the  dominant,  which  is  required 
for  this  purpose,  is  that  very  diametrically  opposite  key  to  which  we  are  not  allowed 
to  proceed  directly  either  hj  modulation  or  pror/ression. 

A  few  practical  exercises,  founded  on  the  preceding  rules,  shall  now  be  given; 
and  if  the  pupil  is  desirous  to  make  himself  practically  as  well  as  theoretically  ac- 
quainted with  his  subject,  he  ought  to  study  and  play  them  with  variations,  as  in 
example  47,  and  let  it  be  kept  in  mind  that  theory  and  practice  must  be  inseparable 
companions. 

The  following  example  exhibits  a  course  of  modulation  arising  from  an  unin- 
terrupted emj)loyment  of  the  Srd  of  the  suhdominant;  and  though  the  3rds,  selected 
here  as  dominants,  are  major  (which  would  direct  us  to  modulate  to  minor  keys*), 
yet,  for  the  sake  of  showing  the  effect  thus  produced,  we  have  modulated  to  major 
keys  t  indifferently,  t 


Ex.66. 


By  the  above  process,  we  continue  to  modulate  by  whole  tones  ascending,  that 
is,  we  modulate  from  the  key  of  C  to  the  key  of  D,  from  D  to  E.  And  although  a 
chromatic  scale  is  thus  produced  through  the  intervention  of  the  dominant,  yet  we 
must  not  confound  this  chi'omatic  progressi(m  with  a  modulation  through  the 
chromatic  scale. § 

Let  the  pupil  continue  this  exei'cise  until  he  arrives  again  at  the  original  key. 

The  above  example,  at  Z,  shows  how  a  minor  chord  may  very  effectually  be 
changed  into  a  major;  thus  not  only  ])roducing  variety,  but  preparing  the  ear  for 
the  modulation  which  follows.  This  will  be  more  clearly  understood  in  *he 
explanation  of  the  following  example. 


'  See  observation  (1),  Kx.  64.  t  Let  the  pupil  himself  say  which  of  these  modulations  he  prefers. 

i  See  observation  on  Ex.  67.  §  See  Ex.  68. 


HARMONY  AKD   COMPOSITION. 


75 


We  shall  now  select  the  octave  of  the  snbdominant. 

This  process  enables  us  to  modulate  by  whole  tones  descending,  that  is,  from  C 
to  B-flat,  from  B-flat  to  A-flat,  etc.,  etc. 


Ex.  67. 


In  example  66,  at  Z,  in  modulating  by  whole  tones  ascending,  we  changed  a 
minor  into  a  major  chord.  In  this  example,  at  Y,  we  have  changed  a  major  into  a 
minor  chord,  because  we  are  modulating  by  whole  tones  descending.  This  process 
of  changing  a  major  chord  into  a  minor,  or  vice  versa,  affords  an  additional  con- 
nection between  the  preceding  tonic  and  succeeding  dominant,  prepares  the  ear  to 
hear  the  following  modulation,  and  softens  any  harshness  of  effect  which  might  be 
l^roduced  when  modulating  to  keys  remote  from  the  original  one,  called  extraneous, 
as  in  the  following  example  where  we  have  modulated  to  a  key  within  one  point  of 
that  which  is  diametrically  opposite,  viz.,  from  C  to  D-flat.  Had  the  chord  of  C 
continued  major,  the  modulation  to  D-fiat  would  have  been  extraneous;  but,  by 
making  that  chord  minor,  the  modulation  to  D-flat  is  no  longer  extraneous,  because 
we  modulate  7iot  from  C  major  to  D-flat,  but  from  C  minor  to  D-flat. 


Ex.68. 


If  we  continue  this  process,  a  modulation  by  ascending  major  semitones  will  be  produced.*  We  have 
selected  throughout  the  3rd  of  the  snbdominant,  und  have  thus  modulated  (at  3)  to  D-flat;  but  as  the  major 
semitone  which  follows  D-flat  is  K-double-flat,  it  becomes  necessary  (in  order  to  prevent  the  accumulation  of 
flats)  to  change  D-flat  enharmoiiicaUij  into  C-sharp  (4),  and  thus  modulate  to  D  (5)  instead  of  E-double-flat; 
from  lience  to  E-flat  (6),  then  to  F-flat  (7) ;  here,  again,  an  etiharmonic  change  must  take  place;  F-flat,  at  7, 
therefore,  is  changed  to  E-natural  (8).  from  whence  we  modulate  to  F,  instead  of  G-double-flat. 

N.B.  We  have  changed  the  major  chord  (bar  1)  into  a  minor;  and  this  process  has  been  observed  at  bars 
5  and  7.  When  .a  note  is  raised  or  lowered  a  half-tone,  and  its  position  on  the  staff  is  thereby  altered,  it  is  called 
a  major  semitone,  but  when  a  note  is  raised  or  lowered  a  half-tone,  without  changing  its  position  on  the  staff,  it 
is  (tailed  a  minor  semitone;  thus,  from  V  to  D-flat  is  a  major  semitone;  from  C  to  C-flat  is  a  minor  semitone. 

The  pupil  should  continue  to  pursue  the  same  process  luitil  he  arrives  again  at  C.  It  is  an  exercise  well 
calculated  to  show,  not  only  the  use  of  enharmonic  changes,  but  also  how  indispensable  they  are  when  modula- 
ting into  extraneous  keys. 

It  may  have  been  remarked  that,  in  selecting  our  dominants,  we  had  especial 
regard  as  to  whether  the  chord  from  which  they  were  selected  was  major  or  minor. 
As  this  is  a  matter  of  importance,  we  shall  proceed  to  jjoint  out  those  keys  which 
are  more  immediately  and  directly  related  to  major,  and  those  related  to  minor 
keys. 

If  the  pupil  has  carefully  examined  examples  .52  to  .56,  and  comprehended 
what  has  been  stated  with  reference  to  them,  it  will  be  clear  that  were  we  to  set 
out  from  a  minor  key,  the  modulation  would  be  different  from  that  which  would 
flow  from  a  major  key. 

S«e  observation  on  Ex.  64. 


76 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 


For  instance : 


At  1,  the  key  is  C  major. 
But  at  4,  the  key  is  C  minor 
At  2,  the  key  is  major 


we  have  selected 


the  3rd  E, 

E-flat 

the  3rd  of  subdom.  A, 


-  the  3rd  of  subdom.  A-flat 
■the3idof  thedom.  B, 

-  the  3rd  of  the  dora.  B-flat 


and  modulated  to  A  minor. 

A-flat  major. 

D  minor. 

D-flat  major. 

E  minor. 


But  at  5,  the  same  key  is  minor, 

At  3,  the  key  is  major 

But  at  6,  the  key  is  minor 

N.B.    At  3  and  6,  tlie  5th  of  the  dominant  chords  has  (for  the  sake  of  effect)  been  permitted  to  ascend;  in 


•  -  E-flat  major. 


consequence  of  which,  the  3rd  in  the  tonic  chord,  which  imraedia^ly  follows,  is  doubled. 


In  the  above  example,  the  3rds  only  have  been  selected  as  dominants  to  show 
their  intluence;  it  has  already  been  shown*  that  the  octave  of  the  tonic,  the  octave 
of  the  subdominant,  and  also  the  5th  of  the  dominant,  exercise  a  similar  influence, 
althoufi^h  not  quite  so  decided.  Instances  of  these  are  given  in  the  following 
example. 

I.  2.  3. 


Ex.  70. 
I. 


^^- 


:   b: 


W 


^?=l3i^^: 


W 


■=fr??- 


=if^ 


* 


At  1,  the  key  is  C  major. 
But  at  4,  the  key  is  C  minor, 

At  2,  the  key  is  major 
But  at ."),  the  same  key  minor, 

At  3,  the  key  is  major 
But  at  6,  the  same  key  minor. 


we  select  the  8ve  of  the  tonic  C  and  modulate  to  F  major. 

C — F  minor. 

-8ve  of  subdom.  F B-flat  major. 

F B-flat  minor. 


-  5tli  of  dom.  D  - 

-  5th D 


—  G  major. 

—  G  minor. 


The  two  preceding  examples  (69  and  70)  plainly  show  (especially  when  played, 
and  on  comparimi  the  different  effects  produced  by  I  and  II)  how  very  much  a 
modulation  is  influenced  in  its  course  by  the  key  from  which  we  set  out,  whether 
that  key  be  major  or  minor.     Tliey  also  teach  us,  that  were  we  simply  to  change  a 


*  See  observation  on  Ex.  86. 60,  and  63. 


HARMONY  AXD   COMPOSITION.  77 

major  key  (to  which  we  had  modulated)  into  a  minor,  the  ivhole  course  of  modula- 
tion would  at  once  receive  an  entirely  neio  impulse  and  direction;  that  is,  in  the 
latter  case  (minor),  we  should  be  directed  to  those  keys  which  are  immediafely 
related  to  the  minor  (II.,  4,  .5,  6);  and,  vice  versa,  by  changing  a  minor  key  into  a 
major,  we  should  modulate  to  those  keys  whicli  stand  in  relation  with  the  major 
(I.,  1,  2,  3). 

We  shall  now  suppose  the  pupil  placed  at  the  pianoforte,  anri  ahout  to  pursue  a  practical  course  of  modu- 
Ution. 

He  Is  already  aware  that  he  may  modulate  direct  to  any  key  except  two;  (the  reason  has  been  shown  in 
page  ).  We  shall  suppose  him  to  be  in  the  key  of  C;  and  instead  of  asking  himself,  as  heretofore,  "  To  what 
key  can  I  modulate?  "  let  him  at  once  say,  '•  I  icill  modulate  to  such  and  such  a  key."  —  We  will  suppose  him  to 
have  chosen  F.  His  next  inquiry  would  be :  What  is  the  dominant  of  F?  —  Answer,  C.  From  whence  have  you 
derived  the  dominant?  —  Answer,  from  the  octave  of  the  tonic. 

I  am  now  in  K.  and  will  modulate  to  E-flat.  What  is  the  dominant?  — Answer,  B-flat.  From  whence  is 
that  dominant  derived?  —  Answer,  it  is  the  subdominant  of  F. 

lam  in  E-flat,  and  will  modulate  to  its  relative  minor,  C.  What  is  the  dominant  to  C?  — Answer.  G. 
From  whence  is  that  dominant  derived?  — Answer,  from  the  thiid  of  the  tonic. 

I  will  modulate  to  G  minor. —The  dominant  is  D.  From  whence  do  1  derive  that  dominant?  (See  Ex. 
60,  y.) 

I  will  modulate  to  B-flat  —  the  dominant  is  F.    From  whence  is  that  dominant  derived  ?    (See  Ex.  61,  y,) 

I  am  in  B-fiat.  —  (an  1  modulate  to  E?  No;  because  the  key  of  E  is  diametrically  opposite  to  B-flat.  (See 
Circle  of  Keys,  page  T-l.) 

And  thus  he  may  continue  his  exercise. 

If  the  principle  on  which  these  modulations  are  founded  be  well  understood, 
no  further  illustration  will  be  required;  nor  will  the  pupil  experience  the  slightest 
difficulty  or  embarrassment  in  his  exercise;  that  is,  provided  he  is  quick  and  ready 
at  finding  t\ie\tonic  to  any  given  dominant.* 

It  must  now  be  manifest  to  the  student  what  an  inexhausible  variety  of  modu- 
lation may  be  produced  by  the  application  of  the  preceding  simple  rules;  and,  as 
they  are  based  on  an  unerring  law  of  nature,  the  learner  can  never  go  astray;  it  is 
impossible,  nothing  is  left  to  chance  —  nothing  to  guess  at.  Let  the  pupil  avail 
himself  of  the  extensive  power  of  modulation  now  jilaced  within  his  reach,  varying 
his  selections  from  the  dilferent  intervals  according  to  his  own  taste;  and,  by  fol- 
lowing his  guide  carefully,  he  must  produce  ever  new,  and  only  the  best  effects; 
all  harsh  and  extraneous  modulation  being  totally  excluded  by  the  rules  themselves. 
The  following  example  may  serve  as  a  specimen  of  the  effective  employment  of  the 
preceding  rules  of  modulation ;  and  it  will  be  observed,  that  in  this  instance  we 
have  not  confined  ourselves  to  mere  modulation,  but  have  occasionally  introduced 
progression-^  This  intermixture  of  modiiUition  -And  progression  will  greatly  add  to 
the  general  effect,  and  prevent  the  monotony  which  would  otherwise  occur,  t 

It  will  be  observed  that,  in  writing  the  variations  in  this  exercise,  we  have  not 
confined  ourselves  to  the  simple  intervals  of  the  chords,  as  in  examples  22,  23,  47; 
on  the  contrary,  we  have  employed  them  in  such  a  manner  as  to  form  a  variety  of 
passages,  to  the  construction  of  which  the  pupil  is  advised  to  pay  particular  atten- 
tion. Neither  have  we  written  the  chords  in  that  simple  form  in  which  they 
appeared  in  the  preceding  examples,  but,  in  order  to  make  the  exercise  as  useful 
as  possible,  we  have  written  the  .srtJHe  chords  in  different  positions;  and,  to  add 

*  This  habit  may  easily  be  acquired,  by  simply  recollecting  that,  in  keys  with  sharps,  the  tonic  has  always 
one  sharp  less  than  the  dominant;  and,  in  keys  wMhflats,  the  tonic  has  one  flat  more.  Thus,  if  the  dominant  is 
D,  the  tonic  will  be  G.  Why?  —  Because  D  has /(fo  sharps,  and  G  but  one.  If  the  dominant  be  E,  the  tonic  will 
be  C-fiat.    Why?—  Because  F  has  one  flat  and  B-flat  has  two  flats. 

t  These  progressions  are  pointed  out  by  the  letter  P. 

t  To  the  professor.  —  It  must  be  kept  in  mind  that,  up  to  the  present  time  we  have  been  entirely  confined 
(e fnndamental  harmony:  when  we  arrive  at  Inversion,  our  field  of  operation  will  be  vastly  enlarged:  but  how 
extensive  will  that  field  be  when  we  arrive  at  the  Inversions  of  the  Chord  of  the  9th,  Equivocal  Modulation,  etc. 
etc. 


78 


HAKMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 


still  more  to  the  general  effect,  some  of  the  intervals  have  been  doubled;*  and,  if 
they  are  played  thus  on  the  pianoforte,  whilst  another  performer  plays  the  varia- 
tion an  octave  higher,  the  effect  will  be  found  pleasing. 

To  make  this  matter  still  more  interesting,  a  few  notes  have  been  introduced 
into  the  variation,  which  do  not  form  a  part  of  the  harmony,  called  "passing  and 
auxiliary  notes,"  t  into  an  explanation  of  the  nature  of  which  it  is  not  at  present 
necessary  to  enter;  the  subject  will  be  fully  considered  hereafter. 

Exercise  on  Modulation  and  Proyression. 
Moderato. 


Zva. 


^^^^^pl 


^^M — r-Fl 1      ^Pm 


III. 


'^e:^£2g^a=g^ 


%va. 


*  Doubling  of  intervals  in  accompaniments  is  permitted,  and  consecutive  octaves  arising  thus,  as  in  the 
present  instance,  are  never  considered  as  such:  but  we  must  be  careful  not  to  confound  this  writing  accompan- 
iments with  writing  in  four  real  parts,  where  every  interval,  we  know,  has  in  its  progressions  its  place  distinctly 
pointed  out.    See  Kx.  41,  etc. 

+  A  few  of  these  notes  are  pointed  out  by  a  mark,  thus  X. 


HAKMONY  AND   COMPOSITION. 


TO 


^"^^TC^T 


^ — ^ 


±^ 


l2t^ 


bi 


bs 


i?2= 


±22= 


-JV-i- 


III. 


3^ 


1^1* 


^rg'^^as^^ 


5.^5;^ 


T    I  1  •  !    -'  ^ 


%^ 


1^ — t* 


liiitzi 


«»i 


.b^ 


^^ 


g!?-  -g-   fe     -J:  ^ 


feg^^g=^=^  7    PF 


^^^= 


»: 


l>! 


--J^^ 


P=F=^M" 


:fet 


i^ 


S 


±i=L 


3=3^^ 


W 


:rr 


fcSaiiE-w:i3d5 


'^^-^'^ 


.^ 


:?t-1«^-: 


! .    gsl..-— ^ 


i^^^ 


t-M-M-ft-H-t 


g3K 


i^=^ — \r^ 


Note.  —  X,  Y,  W,  Z,  show  the  differtnt  ways  of  doubling  some  of  the  intervals  of  this  chord. 


30 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 


References  to  examples  from  which  the  above  modulations  have  been  selected. 

1.    Ex.  58  (A),  8ve  of  tonic  — II.    Ex.  .56.  3rd  of  tonic.  —  III.    Ex.  60  (Y),  5th  of  dominant.  — IV.     Ex.  64, 
8ve  of  subdominant.- V.    Ex.  61  (YJ,  3rd  of  dominant.  —  VI.    Ex.  64,  3rd  of  subdominant. 


AN    ESSAY 

ON 

INVERTED  BASSES 


If  the  pupil  has  carefully  studied  and  comprehended  the  matter  contained  in  the 
preceding  examples,  he  must  have  observed  that  the  harmony  employed  heretofore 
has  been  derived  from  the  vibration  of  a  sonorous  body:*  this  harmony  we  call 
fundamental;  because  it  is  the  basis  and  foundation,  the  solid  and  primitive  rock, 
it  may  be  said,  upon  w^hich  rests  the  entire  supei-structure  of  musical  composition. 
The  bass  of  this  is  called  the  fundamental  6«*'.s,  in  contradistinction  to  that  which 
is  called  the  inverted  5«.s.s,  with  which  the  pupil  shall  now  be  made  acquainted. 

He  will  have  noticed  the  peculiarity  of  the  fundamental  bass  with  respect  to 
the  progression  of  its  intervals,  as  compared  with  the  i^rogression  of  the  intervals 
of  the  rest  of  the  harmony;  for,  whilst  the  former  performed  its  evolutions  by  ex- 
tended distances,  such  as  4ths  and  .5ths,  the  latter  did  so  by  2nds  and  3rds.  This 
fact  should  be  well  kept  in  mind,  and  the  pupil  is  recommended  to  review  once 
again  what  has  been  said  on  the  peculiar  character  of  the  four  jKtrts  at  page 

It  is  evident  that,  were  none  but  fundamental  basses  to  be  employed,  a  great 
monotony  would  be  the  result;  not  only  in  the  bass,  but  in  the  other  parts  also. 

By  the  employment  of  the  four  rules  in  harmonizing,  without  the  addition 
of  a  single  fundamental  bass,  very  considerable  and  important  changes  have  been 
effected,  and  variety  produced,  not  only  with  regard  to  the  har}nony  as  a  whole, 
but  likewise  as  respects  the  individual  melodies  of  the  soprano,  alto,  and  tenor. t 
However,  although  these  rules  have  the  power  to  influence  the  immediate  proyres- 
sion  of  the  fundamental  bass,\  yet  after  all,  they  can  jiroduce  only  common  chords 
and  chords  of  the  fundamental  7th:  all  that  could  be  effected,  therefore  (as  far  as 
fundamental  harmony  is  concerned),  has  been  effected. 

Our  object  shall  now  be  to  show  how  the  characteristic  difference,  still  exist- 
ing between  the  progression  of  the  bass  and  that  of  the  other  parts,  may  be  re- 
moved; how  the  bass  may  be  incorporated  with  the  harmony  so  that  it  shall  lose 
(for  a  time  at  least)  its  individuality  —  that  all  monotony  shall  disappear  —  nevj 
effects  be  eliciced  —  and  the  whole  harmony  assume  an  aspect  differing  from  any 
of  the  former,  yet  without  altering  the  fundamental  progression  on  which  it  is  estab- 
lished. 

It  has  been  made  clear  that,  by  the  employment  of  the  four  rules,  the  funda- 
mental 1th  appears  sometimes  in  tlie  soprano,  sometimes  in  the  tenor,  sometimes 
in  the  alto,  but  never  in  the  bass.X  If  this  fact  be  kept  in  mind,  the  pupil  will 
almost  anticipate  what  is  now  proposed  for  his  consideration,  namely,  how  to  find 
a  bass  which  shall  in  its  progression  assimilate  with,  and  ])artake  of  the  character 
of,  the  otlier  parts  of  the  harmony,  yet  witliout  destroying,  in  a  single  instance, 
the  foundation  upon  which  the  harmony  has  been  constructed.  An  example  wilj 
make  this  plain. 

•  Ex.  48.  t  See  Ex.  39, 1,  TI.  %  See  Ex.  41. 

(81) 


82 


HAKMONY  AND  COMPOSITIOISr. 


We  shall  suppose  the  pupil  to  make  a  modulation  from  C  to  F,  as  in  the  follow- 
ing  Ex. 


Ex.  71. 


Fund.  Bass. 


At  I  is  a  modulation  by  fundamental  basses,  and  no  similarity  of  progression  is 
perceivable  between  the  bass  (as  it  proceeds  from  tonic  to  dominant)  and  the  other 
intervals  of  the  harmony. 

But  if  we  take  E,  the  third  of  the  dominant  chord  (as  at  II),  and  convert  that 
interval  into  o  bass  note,  a  similiarity  will  be  effected,  for  the  bass  E  will  then  pro- 
ceed by  one  degree  to  the  tonic  F. 

Thus  a  neiy  bass  note  is  found;  which  in  its  progression  «ss/»((7a^es  with  the 
rest  of  the  parts,  without  changing  the  nature  of  the  fundamental  harmony,  and 
also  produces  a  new  and  imjjortant  effect.  A  bass  note,  thus  chosen,  we  shall  call 
an  Inverted  bass;  and  as  this  inverted  bass  occupies  now  the  fourth  or  lowest  part 
of  the  harmony,  the  fundamental  bass  must  be  expunged,  as  it  forms  no  longer  a 
portion  of  the  four  parts.  The  intervals,  also,  which  are  thus  chosen  for  inverted 
basses  (and  which  are  pointed  out  by  dots)  must  not  be  allowed  to  remain  in  the 
chords  from  which  they  are  taken. 

As  the  3rd  of  the  chord  is  the  first  interval  which  presents  itself  immediately 
above  the  fundamental  bass,  *  so  when  that  interval  is  chosen  as  an  inverted  bass, 
we  shall  call  it 

The  First  Inversion  of  the  Fundamental  "ithA 

Let  the  pupil  now,  by  way  of  exercise,  make  a  few  modulations,  first  by  the 
fundamental  bass,  and  then  choose  his  inverted  bass,  as  shown  in  the  above 
example. 

When  he  has  written  such  modulations,  by  the  first  inversion  as  at  III, 
played  them,  and  formed  his  judgment  as  regards  the  difference  of  effect  between 
fundamental  and  inverted  basses,  he  may  be  introduced  to  other  inverted  basses; 
but,  before  we  proceed,  it  will  be  necessary  to  enter  a  little  moi-e  minutely  into 
the  nature  of 

Fif/urinr/  the  Inverted  Bass. 

It  has  been  stated  elsewliere  J  that  every  bass  is  supposed  to  he  accompanied 
by  its  common  chord,  and  therefore  requires  not  to  be  figured;  but  this,  let  it  be 
well  kept  in  mind,  applies  to  fundamental  basses  only.  With  respect  to  inverted 
l)asses,  the  case  is  widely  different;  for,  although  the  notes  of  the  chords  remain 
the  same,  yet  the  names  of  the  intervals,  with  reference  to  the  inverted  bass,  are 
not  the  same;  they  must  now  be  counted  from  the  inverted  bass,  and  figured  accord- 

*  See  construction  of  the  common  chord.  —  Example  1. 
t  Why  the  chord  of  the  fundamental  7th  is  first  selected  for  inversion,  rather  than  the  common  chord,  is, 
that  the  pupil  may  at  once  enter  upon  a  course  of  practical  modulation  by  Inversion,  vi^hich  the  latter  would  not 
have  afforded. 

i  See  page     . 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 

ingly;  in  fact,  it  is  only  Jioio  that  the  real  figured  bass  commences,  and  the  neceS' 
sity  of  figuring  the  bass  thus  will  be  evident.  For  instance,  let  us  suppose  the 
fundamental  basses,  at  II  (in  the  preceding  Ex.),  together  with  their  chords,  were 
removed  —  and  that  we  were  required  to  play  the  chords  to  the  three  bass  notes, 
C,  E,  and  F  —  the  performer  would  play  three  common  chords;  but  that  is  not  the 
intention  of  the  composer;  for  it  is  intended  that  the  inverted  bass  E  shall  repre- 
sent the  chord  of  the  fundamental  1th  of  C,  and  not  the  common  chord  of  E.  Here, 
then,  we  perceive  the  absolute  necessity  of  figuring  the  bass,  so  that  it  shall  truly 
represent  the  chord  intended.* 

Let  us  now  ascertain  what  figures  are  required  to  be  placed  over  the  bass  E, 
in  order  that  it  may  express  the  dominant  chord  of  C. 

At  I,  in  the  following  example,  the  inverted  bass  is  E, 

From  E  to  G  is  a  3rd  (original  5th  of  the  fundamental  harmony). 

From  E  to  B-flat  —  flat  5th  (original  flat  7tli  of  the  fundamental  harmony). 

From  E  to  C  —  (5th  (original  8th  of  the  fundamental  harmony). 

The  first  inversion,  therefore,  of  the  dominant  chord  is  figured  thus — i73;t  no 


matter  in  what  position  the  chord  may  appear, 
following  Ex. 


Compare  I  with  II  and  IV  in  the 


Ex.  72. 


Fund.  Bass. 


At  I,  the  8th  of  the  fundamental  bass  is  in'the  soprano  expressed  by  6. 

At  II,  the  7th 5. 

At  IV,  the  5th 3. 

N.B.  Wliere  any  interval  requires  a  sharp,  flat,  or  natural,  the  corresponding 
figure  must  be  marked  so  likewise,  as  has  been  already  explained  in  page  38. 

The  reason  why  we  have  been  so  circumstantial  in  the  explanation  of  the  first 
inversion  is  because  we  are  now  arrived  at  a  very  imjiortant  branch  of  the  practical 
science;  and  it  is  necessary  that  the  pupil  should,  at  the  very  outset,  obtain  a  clear 
and  comprehensive  view,  not  only  of  the  characteristic  difference  which  exists  be- 
tween fundamental  and  inverted  harmony,  but  also  of  the  mode  of  employing  them 
with  propi'iety  and  effect. 

From  what  lias  been  stated,  it  is  clear,  that  if  the  3rd  of  the  chord  can  be 
employed  as  an  inverted  bass,  the  5th  of  the  chord  may  be  thus  employed  also. 

*  This  is  called  playing  from  figured  basses. 
t  The  3rd,  in  figuring  this  chord,  is  generally  dispensed  with,  except  when  it  requires  an  accidental.    Sm 
III,  IV. 


84 


HARMONY  AKD  COMPOSITION. 


In  the  following  example,  at  I,  the  dominant  chord  appears  fundamental.  At 
II,  the  ")th  (G)  of  the  dominant  chord  C  has  been  selected  as  an  inverted  bass;  and 
as  the  ")th  of  that  chord  is  the  second  interval  which  presents  itself  above  the  fun- 
damental bass,  we  shall  call  it 

The  Second  Inversion  of  the  Dominant  Chord. 


A 

-^it' — ^ 

I. 

=1 =^= 

1 ^ 

III. 

I "^ n 

r^ 

Ex.  73-  / 

m^^G> — 

m—w — 

— ^S^ — 

* 

— s <^ — 

Inv.  Bass. 

a 

— f 

% 

a 

9 

— i— 

Fund.  Bass. 


Figuring  of  the  Second  Inversion  of  the  Dominant  Chord. 
At  III,  From  the  inverted  bass  G  to  B-flat  tenor  is  a  3rd  (original  7th  of  the  funda- 
mental chord). 
From  the  inverted  bass  G  to  C  alto  is  a  4th  (original  8th  of  the  fundamen- 
tal chord). 
From  the  inverted  bass  G  to  E  soprano  is  a  0th  (original  3rd  of  the  funda- 
mental chord). 
The  second  inversion,  then,  is  always  figured  i,  in  whatever  order  the  inter- 
vals of  the  chord  may  appear. 

At  4  the  figure  (5  has  a  dash  thi-ough  the  head,  thus,$;  because  G-sharp  (the 
Interval  which  this  0  represents)  has  a  sharp  placed  before  it.  The  same  occur- 
rence takes  place  at  .5. 

The  pupil  should  now,  by  way  of  exercise,  write  an  extensive  modulation  by 
the  second  inversion,  and  then  employ  both  the  1st  and  2nd  according  to  his  own 
discretion,  ■ar(fiilly  figuring  the  bass,  and  observing  to  mark  the  sharp,  or  any 
accidental  Jiat  may  occur;  he  should  then  play  the  whole,  marking  well  the  dif- 
ference of  the  effect  pi-oduced  by  the  different  inversions,  t 

We  shall  now  proceed  to  the  explanation  of  the  third  inversion  of  the  funda- 
mental 1th;  it  is  not  improbable  that  the  intelligent  pupd,  if  he  has  carefully 
attended  to  the  preceding  exercises,  may  have  already  anticipated  the  subject, 
reasoning  thus:  If  we  can  take  the  3rd  iind  .5th  of  the  dominant  chord  as  an 
inverted  bass,  why  not  take  the  7th  of  the  chord  also? 

In  the  following  example,  at  I,  we  have  again  made  a  modulation  from  C  to  F, 
by  the  fundamental  bass;  and,  by  selecting  the  7th  at  2,  as  an  inverted  bass,  have 
produced 

*  See  page  38,  fifth  line. 

t  When  the  pupil  is  able  to  perform  modulations  with  ease  and  facility  (during  the  performance  of  which 
he  should  fix  his  eye  as  much  upon  the  fig-ires  as  on  the  notes),  he  may  try  to  play  without  the  tiotes  of  the  treble, 
by  covering  them  with  a  slip  of  paper;  thus  he  will  learn  (if  he  desire  it)  to  play  from  figured  basses.  See  re- 
marks at  bottom  of  page     . 


Ex.  74. 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 

The  Third  Inversion  of  the  Dominant  Chord. 


85 


3-      "•     4-  i-  , , 


^ 


Fund.  Bass. 


X 


tt- 


:?^ 


I 


^^^mim 


be- 


«*- 


m 


zSz^ir^. 


^ 


Figuring  of  the  Third  Inversion. 

At  II,  From  the  inverted  bass  B-flat  to  G  in  the  tenor,  is  a  0th  (original  5th  in  fun- 
damental harmony). 
From  the  inverted  bass  B-flat  to  C  in  the  alto,  is  a  2nd  (original  8th  in  fun- 
damental harmony). 
From  the  inverted  bass  B-flat  to  E  in  the  soprano,  is  a  4th  (original  3rd  in 
fundamental  harmony). 

The  third  inversion,  therefore,  requires  to  be  figured  4,*  no  matter  in  what 
©rder  the  intervals  of  the  chord  may  appear. 

N.B.  Let  the  pu^jil  be  careful  always  to  expunge  from  the  chord  the  interval 
•which  is  chosen  for  an  inverted  bass,  and  which  is  pointed  out  by  a  dot. 

It  will  have  been  observed  that  the  bass  notes  of  the  1st  and  2nd  inversion,  in 
their  progi-ession,  have  always  proceeded  to  the  tonic  or  fundamental  bass;  but 
not  so  with  the  third  inversion,  because  the  fundamental  7th  (which  is  the  third 
inversion)  descends,  as  it  ought  to  do,  into  the  3rd  of  the  folloroing  tonic  chord, 
where  it  produces  the  first  inversion  of  the  common  chord.  This  is  figured  | ;  be- 
cause, as  at  II,  o, 

From  A  (now  an  inverted  bass)  to  F  is  a  0th,  originally  the  8th  of  the  funda- 
mental harmony. 

From  A  (now  an  inverted  bass)  to  C  is  a  3rd,  originally  the  "jth  of  the  funda- 
mental harmony. 

From  A  (now  an  inverted  bass)  to  F  is  a  (Jth,  originally  the  8th  of  the  funda^ 
mental  harmony. 

The  pupil  may,  therefore,  consider  it  as  a  general  rule  (for  the  present,  at 
least)  that  the  chord  of  the  4  should  be  followed  by  the  chord  of  the  f ;  t  (first  in- 
version of  the  common  chord). 

The  remainder  of  the  example  shows  the  same  chord  in  different  positions. 

We  have  now  gone  through  the  three  inversions  of  the  dominant  chord ;  and 
we  believe  that  nothing  has  been  omitted  that  could  tend  to  bring  the  matter  in  a 

*  It  is  sometimes  5  when  the  6th  does  not  require  an  accidental,  and  sometimes  with  a  2  only. 
•)  It  is  usually  figurediwith  a  6  only,  unless  when  the  3rd  requires  an  accidental. 


86  HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 

more  clear  and  intelligible  form  before  the  eye  of  the  pupil,  or  better  impress  it 
upon  his  understanding.  Experience,  however,  has  proved  that  it  is  possible  to 
know  a  thing  and  not  understand  it  —  that  we  may  understand  and  comprehend 
it,  and  yet  not  be  able  to  put  it  in  practice.  It  is,  therefore,  absolutely  necessary 
that  the  student  should  put  into  practice  what  he  has  here  learned.  To  this  end, 
he  should  write  various  exercises  in  modulation,  employing  the  three  inversions 
with  occasional /H?K7flj»e>i^o7  basses;  let  him  then  play  these  exercises  carefully, 
listening  attentively  to  the  effects  produced  by  the  different  inversions,  mixed 
with  fundamental  progression.  Such  a  practice  cannot  be  too  strongly  recom- 
mended ;  because  not  only  is  it  calculated  to  improve  the  ear,  but  to  give  quickness 
to  the  eye  in  reading  music  at  first  sight  (particularly  if  the  modulation  be  some- 
times extraneous).  It  teaches  to  play  from  figured  basses  almost  intuitively;  in  one 
word,  it  is  the  groundwork  of  composition,  engendering  musical  ideas,  which  sub- 
sequently may  be  carried  out  so  as  to  produce  a  regular,  finished  composition; 
particularly  when  these  exercises  are  played  in  various  measures  of  time,*  inter- 
mixed with  cadences, t  by  which  they  assume  a  rhythmical  form,  which  is  the 
very  life  and  soul  of  a  musical  composition. 

On  this  latter  subject  we  shall  treat  hereafter;  for  the  present,  let  the  pupil 
follow  the  advice  here  given,  and  he  will  be  well  repaid  for  his  trouble. 

The  following  interrogatories  will  tend  much  to  impress  tlie  matter  upon  the  mind  of  the  student. 

Q.  What  do  you  understand  by  fundamental  harmony?  —  It  is  the  harmony  derived  from  nature,  and  is 
the  hasis  upon  which  all  inverted  liariuony  rests.    See  example  48. 

Q.  What  do  you  understand  by  inverted  basses?  — Such  basses  as  are  derived  from  fundamental  har- 
mony. 

Q.  How  are  these  basses  found?  — By  choosing  intervals  out  of  the  fundamental  harmony,  and  convert- 
ing them  into  bass  notes. 

Q.  What  eflfect  does  this  arrangement  produce  ?  —  It  prevents  monotony  in  the  bass,  and  gives  uniformity 
of  progression  to  the  whole  harmony,  producing  a  new  and  striking  effect. 

Q.    How  many  inversions  does  the  chord  of  the  fundamental  7th,  or  dominant  chord  produce  ?  —  Three. 

Q.  What  is  the_/f  rs/  inversion  of  the  dominant  chord,  and  how  is  it  figured  ?  —  By  taking  the  3rd  of  the  dom- 
inant chord  as  the  i7>rerted  bass,  we  have  Ihe /irst  inversion.  The  inverted  bass  is  figured  §,  and 
ascends  a  half-tone  to  its  tonic.    Example  71.  II. 

Q.    What  is  the  second  inversion,  and  how  is  it  figured  ?—  By  choosing  the  5th  of  the  dominant  chord  as 

an  inverted  bass  we  have  the  second  inversion.    It  is  figured  4,  and  descends  a  whole  tone  to  its 

3 
tonic.    Example  73.  III. 

Q.  What  is  the ^/(i»-(/ ]>!rers!0«,  and  how  is  it  figured?  — By  choosing  the  7th  of  the  dominant  chord  we 
have  the  third  inversion.    It  is  figured  4.,  and  descends  into  the  3rd  of  the  following  tonic,  producing 

the  chord  of  the  §,  (the  first  inversion  of  the  common  chord ) .    Ex.  74. 
Q.    Is  it  permitted  to  let  the  interval  which  has  been  chosen  as  an  inverted  bass  remain  in  the  chord  ?  — 

No;  it  must  be  expunged. 
Q.    Why?— Because  it  would  produce  consecutive  octaves. 

In  order  that  these  inverted  basses  may  not  draw  away  the  attention  of  the 
pupil  from  the  simplicity  of  the  fundamental  harmony,  or  lead  him  to  imagine 
that  IK  (0  chords  have  been  introduced,  J  it  will  be  neces.sary  to  impress  upon  his 
mind  that,  though  neto  effects  have  been  produced  by  the  introduction  of  the  in- 
verted basses,  yet  not  the  slightest  addition  has  been  made  to  the  original  number 
of  our  chords. 

Much  will  depend  upon  his  having  clear  views  on  this  subject.  Let  it  be 
remembered,  that  the  harmony  arising  out  of  the  fundamental  basses  remains  just 
the  same  as  heretofore.  Whenever  an  interval  of  a  chord  is  converted  into  a  bass 
note,  that  bass  note  must  not  be  considered  as  the  bass,  but  only  as  one  of  the  four 
parts  or  melodies  of  which,  at  that  time,  the  inverted  bass  is  the  lowest  part,  for 
the  real  bass  is  the  fundamental  bass. 

*  See  Rhythm.  t  See  Cadences. 

i  Those  who  have  studied  harmony  in  the  usual  way  will  understand  what  the  author  means. 


HARMONY   AND   COMPOSITION. 


87 


It  follows,  therefore,  that  as  all  the  intervals  of  the  harmony  of  the  fundamen- 
tal bass  are  (joverned  in  their  progression  by  the  motion  of  that  fundamental  bass; 
so,  the  inverted  bass  (as  one  of  its  intervals)  is,  in  its  progression,  as  much  sub- 
jected to  the  control  of  that  fundamental  bass  as  if  it  had  remained  a  simple  interval 
of  the  chord. 

Why  the  intervals  of  the  inverted  bass  require  to  be  figured  has  been  already 
shown.  The  following  exercise  on  modulation  by  inverted  basses  will  place  all 
that  has  been  said  in  a  still  clearer  point  of  view;  we  shall  reserve  the  former 
order  of  our  procedure,  and  instead  of  writing  the  harmony  of  the  fundamental  bass 
first,  and  then  selecting  the  inverted  bass,  we  shall  choose  the  inversions  first,  and 
afterwards  the  harmony. 

Preceptor:  Modulate  from  the  key  of  C  to  D  minor. 

The  pupil  now  writes  the  chord  of  C,  as  in  the  following  example  at  I,  and  the 
fundamental  basses,  as  at  2  and  3,  expressed  by  dots.     This  is  the  first  step. 


Ex.75- 


/ 

/ 

\ 

^      I.             2.             3.              4.             5.              6.            7.            8.            9.                                    ID.           II. 

Jf   g     1 ^ ^ -S -^ ^— : 

k9j)  ^— j 1 II  g  T i H  S— f \ |]-g-45tirvg    |-gg=4j| 

■^      i              ^    a^     ^      ^    nL     -^-      -^       tL     ^ 

^: i i i l—i — 

v 

^^     ^        t     *                       H     ^            ^        \                                h*                       H                            m       \ m 

Q.     By  the  pupil.  —  By  what  inversion?    Preceptor.  —  By  the  first  inversion. 

The  pupil  now  writes  C-sharp,  the  third  of  the  dominant  chord  (at  5)  as  the 
inverted  bass,  which  (as  3rd  of  the  dominant)  ascends  immediately  to  D  (at  6). 
This  process  may  be  considered  as  the  second  step. 

Q.     How  is  the  first  inversion  of  the  dominant  chord  figured?    A.    By  s. 

(Here  the  pupil  figures  the  bass  as  at  8.)  — This  is  the  third  step. 

The  pupil  now  writes  the  chord  of  the  fundamental  7th  over  the  figured  bass, 
as  at  10,  and  then  resolves  it,  as  at  11.  This  is  the  fourth  and  last  step,  and  com- 
pletes the  proposed  modulation  from  C  to  D  minor  by  the  first  inversion. 

Let  it  be  kept  in  mind,  when  we  are  about  to  write  the  chord  to  an  inverted  bass 

thus,  that  the  intervals  ought  not  to  be  named  after  the  figures  by  which  they  are 

represented  in  that  inverted  chord,  but  they  must  still  be  called  by  the  original 

names  which  they  had  in  the  fundamental  chord;  just  as  if  no  inversion  had  taken 

place.     If  this  direction  be  carefully  attended  to  (which  is  indeed,  as  shall  presently 

be  shown,  of  much  consequence),  it  will  exceedingly  simplify  the  process  of  modula- 

lation  by  inverted  basses,  and  remove  all  that  intricacy  which,  by  any  other  process, 

is  unavoidable. 

In  order  to  prove  this,  we  shall  take  the  chord  of  the  fundamental  7th  as  an  example.  The  chord,  we 
know,  contains  three  intervals,  or  notes,  besides  its  bass,  viz.,  3,  5,  7.  It  admits,  therefore,  of  three  inversions; 
and  as  each  of  these  intervals,  in  each  of  tliese  inversions,  when  figured,  must  necessarily  appear  under  three 
different  names,  it  is  evident  that  much  confusion  may  arise  unless  prevented  by  the  above  process.  For 
Instance :  — 


The  original  8th. 


The  original  7th. 


The  original  5th. 


The  original  3rd. 


(  by  the  1st  inversion  will  appear  as  6. 

<  2nd  4. 

(  3rd 2. 

C  by  the  1st  inversion  will  appear  as  5. 

\  2nd 3. 

(  3rd  in  the  base. 

C  by  the  1st  inversion  will  appear  as  3. 

\  2nd  in  the  bass. 

(  3rd 6. 

(  by  the  1st  inversion  will  appear  in  the  bass. 

<  2nd 6. 

t  3rd 4. 


88 


HARMONY  AND   COMPOSITION. 


Now  all  this  apparent  confusion  and  perplexity  vanishes  the  moment  we  pursue  the  process  which  bat 
been  pointed  out,  viz.,  calling  intervals  uniformly  not  only  by  their  original  fundamental  names,  but  with  refer- 
ence to  their  progression  also;  for  example  :  at  bar  10,  in  the  preceding  example,  we  should  ask  ourselves  the 
question  :  — 

Where  is  the  3rd  ?  —  In  the  bass.      How  must  the  Srdjproceed  ?    (Do  not  say  the  bass.)    It  must  ascena. 

Where  is  the  7th  ?    (Do  not  say  the  5th.)    In  the  tenor.       How  must  the  7th  proceed  ?— It  must  descend. 

Where  is  the  5th  ?    (Do  not  say  the  3rd.)    In  the  soprano.    How  must  the  5tli  proceed  ?— It  must  descend. 

By  this  means  the  subject  is  exceedingly  simplified,  as  the  attention  is  constantly  directed  to  the  intervals 
of  one  chord  only,  viz.,  the  chord  of  the  fundmental  7th.* 

The  pupil  may  proceed  thus  through  a  whole  course  of  modulation;  having 
proposed  to  himself  the  keys  to  which  he  intends  to  modulate,  he  lirst  writes  the 
fundamental  basses,  and,  having  made  his  selection  of  invprted  basses  and  figured 
them,  adds  the  harmony. 

That  some  idea  may  be  formed  of  the  variety  of  effect  which  inversions  pro- 
duce, when  contrasted  with  fundamental  progressions,  we  will  select  some  of  the 
preceding  examples,  the  modulation  of  xvhirh  shall  be  rigorously  preserved  while 
the  three  inrersinn.'<  are  employed  in  various  ways. 

We  shall  first  select  exanii)le  56,  and  employ  the  2nd  inversion  4- 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  same  modulations  which  occur  at  I  are  again 
employed  at  II,  but  there  the  third  inversion  *  is  used  instead  of  the  second.  The 
few  additional  bars  are  introduced  merely  for  the  purpose  of  concluding  the 
exercise  in  the  original  key. 


I. 

Ex.  76. 


=^ 


:^=5 


irsi 


n 


J20_ 


=fci 


4t«_ 


Fund.  Bass. 


That  the  pupil  may  reaj)  the  full  advantage  of  the  following  exercises,  it  is  absolutey  necessary  that  he 
should  re-examine  and  play  all  the  previous  examples  of  fundamental  modulations  thus  selected  for  inversion, 
in  order  that  his  ear  may  be  impressed  again  with  the  effect  produced.  He  will  thus  at  once  perceive  the  great 
difference  of  effect  between  fundamental  and  inverted  basses,  not  only  as  regards  the  harmony  as  a  whole,  but 
also  the  melodious  progression  of  the  basses  themselves  ;  and  it  is  for  this  reason  that  we  have  chosen  to  select 
examples,  with  the  effect  of  which  the  pupil  has  already  been  made  acquainted.  Let  him  compare  the  bass  of 
example  .56  with  that  of  the  inverted  bass  in  the  above  example  76. 

When  two  or  more  dominant  chords  follow  each  other  immediately  (as  in  the  preceding  example,  bars  4 
and  5),  the  3rd  of  Vn^ first  chord  need  not  ascend,  because  the  dominant  does  not  then  proceed  to  the  tonic,  but 
to  another  dominant.  In  tliis  case  the  third  of  the  dominant  descends  a  minor  semitone,  and  forms  the  funda- 
mental 7th  of  the  fullou-ino  dominant.  The  present  deviation  respecting  the  regular  ascending  yiTOgTession  of 
the  3rd  of  the  dominant  chord  to  its  tonic  (let  it  be  remembered)  can  only  be  permitted  in  a  succession  of  dom- 
inant chords,  as  shown  above.  (See  the  X.B.  page  49,  and  example  39.  II,  bar  4  and  5,  where  the  alto,  instead  of 
ascending  to  the  octave,  proceeds  to  the  7th  of  the  following  dominant.)  If  we  continue  modnlating  from  dom- 
inant to  dominant,  it  will  produce  a.  protracted  modulation,  of  which  the  following  is  a  short  specimen;  but  this 
shall  be  more  fully  explained  when  we  treat  on  that  sul)ject. 

*  Those  only  who  have  already  made  harmony  their  study  will  appreciate  the  simplicity  of  this  arrange- 
ment. 

t  In  order  to  make  the  harmony  more  complete,  the  3rd  (G  S  at  x)  has  been  permitted  to  fall  to  the  .'th.  and 
the  5th  (C  at !/)  to  ascend  to  the  5th  of  the  following  tonic. 


HARMONY  AND   COMPOSITION. 


Example  56   again  selected,  employmg  the  first  inversion,  %,  and  ending  in  B 
minor. 


Ex.  77. 


S^ 


E 


T~     3       5 

i 


iEF^Ent^z±^m^w^^^^^^ 


i      5    — I- 


:»=?= 


I?f 


eSE^! 


The  pupil  will  observe  that  the  highest  part,  or  soprano,  of  example  57  (which 
is  here  selected  for  exercise),  is  converted  into  the  bass  part  of  the  following 
example. 


Ex.  78. 


If  we  write  the  inverted  bass  part  of  this  example  in  the  soprano,  and  the 
soprano  in  the  bass  (as  in  the  following  example),  an  interchange  of  parts  will 
be  the  result.  Such  an  interchange  of  parts  is  called  double  counterpoint  in  the 
octave.  We  mention  this  circumstance  here  (merely  by  the  way)  to  show  the  great 
importance  of  possessing  a  sound  knowledge  of  fundamental  harmony,  and  what 
may  be  effected  by  a  proper  application  of  inverted  basses. 

The  bass  of  the  preceding  example  78  written  in  the  soprano,  two  octaves 
higher,  with  the  sojirano  written  in  the  bass,  one  octave  loiver. 


Ex.  79. 


The  following  is  selected  from  example  58,  A,  with  mixed  inversions  which 
the  pupil  will  figure,  and  then  add  the  alto  and  tenor. 


Ex.80. 


^      ^ 


bw      -w- 


90 


HARMONY  AND   COMPOSITION. 


The  following  is  selected  from  example  58,  B. 
here  converted  into  a  bass.  X.B.  —  The  tiguriuj 
omitted  in  succeeding  examples. 


Ex.  8i. 


The  soprano  of  that  example  is 
of  the  bass  ■will  be  occasionally 


By  way  of  exercise,  the  pupil  may  let  the  parts  of  the  first  two  bars  in  this 
example  interchanye,  as  in  example  79. 

In  the  following  exercise  the  soprano  of  example  66  has  been  converted  into  a 
bass,  which  the  pupil  will  figure  and  then  add  the  harmony. 


Ex.  82. 


BE 


<^4i-...Ht^H  ^  r^^^F^y 


V^Tt^^    1^'=^    iD-g— T-^'-'    <^' 


^^m 


As  a  few  specimens  of  inverted  basses  given  in  the  preceding  examples  will 
suffice  to  show  how  they  may  be  employed,  we  shall  proceed  to  explain 

The  Inversions  of  the  Common  Chord. 

This  may  be  effected  in  a  very  few  words ;  for,  as  the  pupil  is  already  ac- 
quainted with  the  first  inversion  of  that  chord  t,  it  only  remains  to  explain  the 
second. 

It  is  clear,  that  as  the  common  chord  contains  only  two  intervals  besides  the 
bass,  it  can  have  only  two  inversions.  In  the  following  example,  at  1,  appears  the 
fundamental  chord. 

At  2,  the  first  inversion  (6th),  the  third  of  the  chord  having  been  selected. 

At  3,  the  second  inversion  (  % ),  the  5th  of  the  chord  having  been  chosen  as 
the  inverted  bass. 


Ex.  %z- 


-^ 


w 


It  would  be  waste  of  time  to  enter  more  fully  into  an  explanation  of  these 
inversions,  after  the  exercises  through  which  we  have  gone.  The  following  exam- 
ple will  suffice  to  show  their  practical  use:  — 

•  When  we  modulate  as  in  example  61,  X,  no  inversions  should  be  employed,  because  the  effect  produced 
by  the  fundamental  bass  will  be  more  characteristic  of  the  boldness  which  that  modulation  is  intended  to 
express. 

The  fundamental  7th  may,  on  occasion,  be  permitted  to  ascend  to  the  5th  of  the  following  tonic.  See 
Weber's  Overture  to  Freyschutz  —  vivace  movement,  bars  37,  38,  and  39. 

t  See  example  74,  bars  5,  7,  9,  and  12,  and  explanation  in  page  85. 


HARMONY   AND   COMPOSITION. 


91 


uGzzaJi 


U^U. 


III. 


li^il 


-9 — 9    Lg 


1=^^ 


^ 


:J=-J=U=^ 


N.B.  The  chords  of  the  |,  at  I,  are  of  doubtful  origin,  as  shall  be  shown  when 
we  treat  on  discords  by  suspension.     Those  at  II  and  III  are  perfectly  legitimate. 

When  we  employ  the  first  inversion  of  a  common  chord,  it  is  not  absolutely 
necessary  to  remove  the  3rd  from  the  chord,  unless  it  affects  the  purity  of  the  har- 
mony. In  the  preceding  example  at  2,  the  6th  {i.e.,  the  original  3rd)  is  doubled. 
This  doubling  of  the  6th  arises  from  the  resolution  of  the  preceding  chord ;  but  it 
may  also  appear  as  at  4,  where  E,  the  5th  of  the  dominant  chord,  ascends  to  F. 

Hints  respecting  Figuring. 

In  figuring  the  first  inversion,  a  6  is  sufficient,  unless  the  3rd  with  which  it  is 
accompanied  requires  an  accidental.  In  that  case,  it  is  only  necessary  to  place  the 
accidental  alone,  in  place  of  the  figure  3,  thus:  ^'  P'  ^■ 

The  second  inversion  must  always  be  figured  I. 

When  the  figures  requiring  accidentals  are  .•<harp,  they  are  marked  with  a  line 
across,  or  a  $  before  them. 

When  the  accidentals  required  are  flats  or  naturals,  they  are  placed  before  the 
figure  in  the  same  manner  as  they  are  placed  before  the  note. 

ON   KMPLOYIXG   INVKKTED  BASSES   IN   IIAKMONIZING    MELODIES. 

It  has  already  been  shown  how  inversions  may  be  employed  in  modulation  ;  — 
it  shall  now  be  pointed  out  how  these  inversions  may  be  employed  in  harmonizing 
melodies.  In  this  latter  the  pupil  will  not  experience  the  least  difficulty,  provided 
he  has  paid  strict  attention  to  the  former.  He  will  immediately  perceive  that  he 
is  already  in  possession  of  all  the  essentie'  matter  here  required.  However, 
before  we  proceed  it  will  be  necessary  to  recall  attention  to  what  has  been  said  at 
page  52,  and  exhibited  in  example  43,  A. 

We  there  explained  the  jieculiar  character  of  each  of  the  four  parts,  and  how 
(from  the  application  of  the  four  rules  of  harmonizing*)  they  became  interchanged 
amongst  themselves,  producing  an  agreeable  diversity  of  effect;  in  which  inter- 
change, however,  the  bass  did  not  participate. t 

We  will  now  take  a  melody  and  harmonize  it  with  fundamental  basses  only  — 
write  the  chords  on  an  upper  staff,  leaving  a  blank  staff  for  the  inverted  bass, 
add  the  7ths  to  the  dominant  chords,  and  take  care  that  they  are  properly 
resolved.     (See  example  86,   I.) 

*  Page  44  to  62. 
+  The  pupil  is  strongly  recommended  to  refer  once  again  to  what  has  been  stated  in  the  introduction  to  in- 
verted basses  (page  81 ):  it  will  materially  assist  him  in  comprehending  the  subject  upon  which  we  are  now  about 
to  enter. 


92 


HARMONY  AND   COMPOSITION. 


Having  harmonized  the  melody  thus,  our  object  is  next  to  select  from  the  har* 
mony  some  of  the  intervals  with  which  to  construct  a  melody  in  the  inverted  bass, 
A  few  rules  shall  be  given  to  the  pupil  in  this  selection;  for  the  present  it  will 
suffice  to  direct  his  attention  to  the  dominant  chords  only,  because  the  resolution 
of  tlie  intervals  of  that  chord  will  be  quite  sufficient  to  point  out  the  path  which 
the  inverted  bass  is  to  pursue. 


Rules  for  constructing  an  Inverted  Bass 
(a.)  (i.)  (c.)  (d.) 


Ex.  85- 


w 


(e.) 


m 


Rule  I. 

(a)     When  the  5th  of  the  dominant  chord  is  in  the  soprano,  select  the  3rd  as 
the  inverted  bass  |. 

This  will  i:)roduce  a  soprano  progression  in  that  part. 

Rule  II, 

(6)     When  the  3rd  is  in  the  soprano,  select  the  7th  for  the  inverted  bass  1. 

This  will  produce  a  tenor  progression  in  that  part. 

Rule  III. 

(c)  When  the  7th  is  in  the  soprano,  select  the  3rd  as  the  inverted  bass  f. 

This  will  again  produce  a  soprano  progression  in  that  part. 

Rule  IY. 

(d)  When  the  3rd  is  in  the  soprano,  select  the  5th  as  the  inverted  bass  1. 

This  will  also  produce  a  soprano  progression  in  the  bass. 

Rule  Y. 

(e)     When  the  8th  is  in  the  soprano,  select  the  3rd. 

N.B.     When  the  above  rules  cannot  be  employed,  use  the  fundamental  bass. 

We  shall  now  proceed  to  the  construction  of  the  inverted  bass  for  the  vacant 
staff  in  the  next  example  at  II,  by  employing  the  first  and  second  rules  only. 


HAKMONY  AND   COMPOSITION.  93 

the  first  chord  is  not  a  dominant  chord  —  use  the  fundamental  bass. 

Second  note :—  What  interval  is  in  the  soprano  ?    The  5th. 

Select  the  3rd  of  that  chord  for  the  inverted  bass;  expunge  B  from  the  chord,  and  write  it  in  the  vacant 
staff,  where  it  must  ascend  to  C  in  the  following  chord.    Soprano  progression.    (See  example  71.) 

Fourth  note :} —  What  interval  is  in  the  soprano?    The  3rd. 

Select  the  7th  (tenor  progression) ;  compare  the  harmoay  at  I  with  that  at  II.  The  pupil  will  observe  that 
the  monotonous  effect  produced  by  the  fundamental  bass  at  I  has,  in  some  measure,  disappeared  atril,  by  the 
introduction  of  the  first  inversion  6,  and  the  third  inversion  6  with  its  resolution;  in  other  respects,  the  harmony 
of  t'le  exercise  remains  as  it  was  before.  2 

We  shall  now  harmouize  another  air,  and  introduce  the  third  and  fourth 
rules. 


Ex.  87. 


At  b,  the  3rd  is  the  soprano  ■ 

c,  the  7th 

d,  the  3rd 


-select  the  7th. 
select  the  3rd. 
select  the  5th. 


2nd  rule. 
3rd  rule. 
4th  rule. 


e,  the  1st  inversion  of  the  common  chord,  arising  out  of  the  resolution  of  the  preceding  dominant  chord. 

At  bar  4,  the  7th  is  not  introduced  until  the  latter  part  of  the  chord.* 

At  l)ar7,  although  the  3rd  Is  in  the  soprano,  we  are  not  allowed  to  employ  the  3rd  inversion;  because  it  is  a 
general  rule,  that  a  composition  should  begin  and  end  ■n-ith  the  fundamental  tonic  chord:  had  the  3rd  inversion 
been  employed,  the  exercise  would  have  finished  with  the  chord  of  the  6th. 

The  pupil  should  now  harmonize  a  few  melodies,  according  to  these  simple 
rules ;  after  which,  he  may  venture  upon  a  more  extended  field  of  operation  as 
regards  the  construction  of  inverted  basses. 

Our  constant  desire  is  to  produce  variety;  but  as  it  is  clear  that  a  continued 
application  of  the  preceding  rules  respecting  inverted  basses,  however  effective 
for  the  present,  must  ultimately  produce  a  certain  degree  of  monotony,  we  shall,  in 
the  following  exercise,  exhibit  some  specimens  of  the  variety  of  ways  in  which 
the  inversions  of  the  dominant  chord,  as  well  as  those  of  the  common  chord,  may 
be  effectively  employed. 


6. 


Ex. 


Soprano. 


The  reason  of  this  will  be  more  fully  explained  when  we  treat  on  periods. 


94 


HARMONY   AND   COMPOSITION. 

10.  II.  12.  13.  14. 


15.      le. 


At  a,  first  inversion  of  the  dominant  chord,  6,- 
b,  third  inversion 


2' 


-  soprano  progression  in  the  bass. 
■  tenor  progression  "  " 


e,  tirst  inversion  of  the  common  chord,  e,  arising  from  the  preceding  3rd  inversion  of  the  dominant. 

d,  second  inversion  of  the  common  chord,  6, alto  progression  in  the  bass. 

e,  first  inversion  of  the  common  chord,  6. 

/,second  inversion  of  ihedominant  chord,  4, soprano  progression         " 

3 

Observation  1. —  The  soprano  and  bass,  being  the  exteme  parts  of  the  harmony, 
are  always  the  most  conspicuous  (that  is,  they  are  more  easily  distinguished  than 
the  inner  parts);  therefore  to  them  are  yener ally  given  those  intervals  which  ai'f 
considered  to  produce  the  best  effect,  or  contrary  motion.  See  bars  3,  9,  11,  14 
and  let  the  pupil  well  notice  the  gradual  descending  bass  in  bars  9,  10,  11. 

Observation  2.  —  At/,  bar  3  and  11,  the  5th  is  in  the  soprano,  and,  according  U 
the  first  rule,  the  3rd  should  be  selected  as  the  inverted  bass;  but,  as  that  interva 
in  its  progression  ascends,  we  have  chosen  the  5th  for  variety,  by  which  not  onl 
a  flowing  melody  is  procured  in  that  part,  but  also  eontrarxj  motion. 

Observation  3.  —  It  has  been  shown  at  page  43,  in  what  part  of  the  harmon  *• 
the  fundamental  7tli  may  be  introduced;  the  reason  was  there  stated,  also,  whv 
that  interval  could  not  be  admitted  at  that  time,  although  the  progression  of  th** 
fundamental  bass  would  permit  its  introduction;  however,  having  now  arrived  at 
inversions,  that  interval  may  be  very  effectively  employed,  though  its  introduction 
can  be  considered  only  as  by  license;  because  the  7th,  so  introduced,  will  appear  in 
a  part  of  the  harmony  where  the  3rd  (its  proper  resolution)  is  not  found,  and 
which  in  such  case  will  necessarily  be  doubled.  See  (/),  bar  11,  where  D-flat  (thfl 
7th)  appears  in  the  tenor,  and  lesolves  on  C  the  3rd;  and  as  that  C  is  found  also  in 
the  soprano,  the  3rd  of  the  tonic  chord  is  doubled.  At  bar  9,  the  licensed  7th 
appears  in  the  inverted  bass,  and  the  3rd  is  consequently  doubled  in  that  part  and 
in  the  soprano. 

Obnervation  4.  —  We  are  aware  that  the  chord  of  the  6th  (first  inversion  of  the 
common  chord)  has  heretofore  arisen  out  of  the  resolution  of  the  3rd  inversion  of 
the  dominant  chord*.  At  bar  14,  however,  that  inversion,  in  order  to  procure  a 
flowing  and  melodious  progression  in  the  bass,  has  been  introduced  unconnected 
with  the  dominant  chord. 

Observation  5.  — An  inversion  may  be  interchanged  with  another  inversion,  and 
thus  produce  a  more  melodious   progression  in   the  different  parts:  see  bar  1^ 

•  See  Ex.  74,  bars  5,  7,  9. 


HAKMOXY  AND   COMPOSITION. 


95 


where  the  second  inversion  is  followed  by  the  3rd.    Observe  the  interchange  of 
intervals  between  the  alto  and  bass. 

It  would  l)e  imprudent  to  enter  here  into  all  the  minutiae  of  this  fertile  sub- 
ject; sufficient  has  been  said  to  direct  the  intelligent  student  how  to  proceed;  let 
him  only  harmonize  and  reharmonize  example  88,  in  the  variety  of  ways  with 
which  he  is  already  acquainted,  and  then  his  own  experience  will  probably  teach 
him  more  than  all  that  could  be  said  ujion  the  subject. 

Observation  6. — It  has  already  been  observed,  that  a  strict  adhei'ence  to  the 
rules,  as  exhibited  in  example  85,  may  occasionally  be  dispensed  with,  when  it 
is  our  object  to  produce  varietj' —  contrary  motion  —  or  a  more  effective  melody  in 
the  bass;  however,  when  we  do  thus  depart  from  the  observance  of  these  rules,  a 
slight  departure  from  the  established  progression  of  some  of  the  intervals  of  the 
dominant  chord  will  also  take  place.  This  will  be  evident  by  examining  the 
following. 

i.  _     c.  d.  e. 


Ex. 


At  a,  1st  rule,  all  is  right. 

At  6,  the  Sth  is  in  the  bass,  and  ascends.    Here  we  have  proceeded  by  contrary  motion ;  but  the  3rd  in  the 
alto  must,  in  consequence,  descend  on  the  Sth  of  the  following  tonic,  to  preserve  the  harmony  complete. 
At  c,  the  7th  is  in  the  bass,  for  variety.    The  3rd  ascends,  but  the  alto  and  sorpano  are  doubled. 

Observation  7.  —  A  word  concerning  the  6^/.'  of  the  scale  descending,  when  it  is 
preceded  by  the  7th. 

We  know  that  the  fundamental  bass  of  the  6tli  of  the  scale  is  the  subdominant; 
now  were  we  to  accompany  that  interval  thus  in  descending,  after  having  been 
preceded  by  the  7th,  consecutive  5ths  and  8ths  would  be  the  immediate  conse- 
quence (as  in  the  above  example  at  d);  to  avoid  this,  the  fundamental  bass  of  the 
7th  of  the  scale,  instead  of  descending  from  the  dominant  to  the  subdominant, 
should  ascend  a  whole  tone  to  the  relative  minor  of  the  key  (as  at  e). 

The  following  is  a  practical  illustration  of  all  the  preceding  observations. 
Soprano,    i . 


^iS^^ 


Ex.90. 


9(5 


HARMONY   AND   COMPOSITION. 
13.  14.  15.  16.  17.  i{ 


At  a  (bar  1),  the  6th  in  the  soprano  descends  ;  we  have  selected  the  same  interval  for  the  inverted  bass 
(second  inversion),  and  have  made  it  to  ascend*,  producing  a  good  effect  and  contrary  motion.  Compare  this 
with  bars  11  and  17. 

At  ft,  <•  (bars  5  and  6),  the  7th  of  the  scale  descends  to  the  6th;  we  have,  therefore,  accompanied  the  latter 
internal  by  the  relative  minor  of  the  key  t ;  the  occurrence  takes  place  at  bars  13  and  14.^ 

Let  the  pupil  remember  that,  although  our  principal  object  in  constructing 
an  inverted  bass  is  to  produce  afluwinr/  and  graceful  |melodyin  that  part,  as  also 
an  amalgamation  of  all  the  parts  — yet  the  peculiar  character  of  the  bass,  which 
c(msists  in  fundamental  progression,  must  constantly  be  kept  in  view;  see  bars 
T),  (i,  7,  8,  9,  10,  which  are  aW  fundamental  progressions. 

He  is  recommended  to  read  the  remarks  which  have  been  made  at  the  end  of 
the  treatise  on  modulation  by  fundamental  basses,  pages  57-58;  and  on  all  occa- 
sions to  play  what  he  may  write;  and  in  order  to  produce  a  variety  of  effect,  he 
should  arrange  the  same  exercise  in  a  variety  of  ways,  of  which  a  few  specimens 
are  given  in  the  following  examples.  This,  in  fact,  will  constitute  an  elementary 
introduction  to  extemporary  performance. 

In  the  following  example  is  shown  how  the  three  inversions  of  the  dominant 
chord  only,  with  its  resolution,  may  be  employed  so  as  to  produce  variety. 


Ex.  91. 


*  See  Observation  h;  also  Ob.  2.  t  See  Observation  7. 

tit  will  be  perceived  that  on  all  these  occasions  a  fundamental  7th  has  been  introduced  upon  the  dominant 
chord  of  U-flat,  as  if  it  actually  proceeded  to  its  tonic;  this  may  here  be  considered  as  va.ihev  premature,  but  it 
greatly  improves  the  harmony,  and  will  be  fully  explained  hereafter.    See  False  Cadences. 


HARMONY   AND   COMPOSITION. 


97 


It  will  be  perceived  that  the  melodies  at  bars  1,  2,  3,  contain  only  two  sounds 
each;  but  the  monotonous  effect  of  the  harmony  at  bar  1,  is  removed  at  2  and  8,  by 
employing  other  inversions. 

We  shall  now  give  an  exercise  in  which  will  be  found  two  distinct  bass-parts  to 
the  .same  melody,  where  the  above  mode  of  selecting  inverted  basses  is  put  into 
Tjractice.  Of  course  it  is  unnecessary  to  observe  that  these  two  inverted  basses 
are  two  distinct  exercises,  and  are  not  intended  to  be  employed  at  the  same  time. 
Each  of  them  should  be  taken  separately,  employing  the  same  melody,  and  then 
adding  the  two  other  parts  of  the  harmtmy. 


Ex.  92. 


2d  Inv.  Bass.; 


IS 


Fund.  Bass. 


^ 


--i       ■=>■ 


On  looking  over  the  second  bass  jiart  of  the  above  example  it  will  be  per- 
ceived, in  the  latter  part  of  bar  2,  that  had  the  F-sharj)  continued  to  the  end  of 
the  bar,  it  must  have  ascended  to  G,  producing  consecutive  octaves ;  instead  of 
which,  it  first  ascends  to  the  5th  of  its  own  chord,  and  Hien  descends  to  G.  Mean- 
while the  5th,  A,  in  the  melody,  also  divides  itself  into  two  notes,  and,  instead  of 
descending  from  A  to  G  in  the  next  bar,  it  first  proceeds  to  the  3rd  (F-sharp) 
which  the  bass  has  quitted,  and  afterwards  ascends  one  degree  to  G.  As  the  use 
of  this  interchange  of  intervals  is  of  considerable  importance,  and  as  frequent 
reference  will  be  made  to  it,  we  have  been  more  than  iisually  careful  in  directing 
the  attention  of  the  pupil  to  it;  and  to  impress  it  still  more  upon  the  mind,  we  add 
the  following :  — 


Ex.  93. 


In  the  above  example  it  will  be  perceived,  1st,  that  this  interchange  takes 
place  during  the  continuance  of  the  chord;  2nd,  that  the  different  intervals,  after 
this  interchange,  wherever  they  may  be  found,  proceed  to  their  destination  as 
pointed  out  by  the  resolution  of  the  chord  of  the  fundamental  7th.  For  instance, 
l»ar  1,  the  inverted  bass,  G-sharp,  ascends  to  the  5th,  B,  and  then  descends  to  A; 
while  at  the  same  time  the  5th,  B,  in  the  alto,  descends  to  the  .3rd,  G-sharp,  and 
then  ascends  to  A.*  Bar  2,  the  reverse  has  taken  place.  Bar  3.  the  inverted  bass 
ascends  from  the  3rd  to  the  7th,  where  it  resolves  into  the  3rd;  remark  the  pro- 
gression of  the  soprano. 


*  The  importance  of  tins  interchanging  of  parts  will  be  still  more  evident  when  we  arrive  at  pasiitKj  notes. 


!)8 


HARMOXY  AND   COMPOSITION. 


This  may  suffice  to  show  the  principle  on  which  these  interchanges  are  per- 
formed ;  we  shall  now  harmonize  a  simple  melody,  to  show  their  practical  use  and 
effect. 


Ex.94. 


Bar  1 ,  the  bass  interchanges  with  the  alto ;  at  3  and  4,  with  the  soprano. 

N.B.  It  is  not  absolutely  necessary  that  on  these  occasions  the  identical  inter' 
cals  of  the  chord  should  interchange  places:  —  see  second  part  of  bars  3  and  6. 

It  will  now  be  necessary  to  make  a  few  observations  on  the  2nd  and  4th  rules 
of  harmonizing,  in  order  to  show  how  these  rules  may,  under  certain  circumstances, 
be  employed  in  a  more  extended  form  than  heretofore.* 

We  are  aware  that  "when  the  4th  of  the  scale  descends  one  degree,  it  may  be 
accompanied  by  the  dominant;"  we  shall  now  add,  that  the  4th  of  the  scale,  although 
it  may  not  immediately  descend  one  degree  (resolving  upon  the  3rd  of  the  succeed- 
ing tonic  chord),  yet,  provided  it  proceeds  to  any  of  the  other  intervals  of  that 
chord  before  its  final  resolution,  it  may  still  be  accompanied  by  the  dominant. 


Sx.95- 


At  a,  the  4th  of  the  scale,  although  it  does  not  descend  one  degree,  is  still  ac- 
companied by  the  dominant;  because  it  descends  to  the  3rd  of  that  chord,  ana 
then  resolves. 

At  h,  the  4th  has./zr.s^  descended  to  the  5th  of  the  dominant  chord;  the  inverted 
bass  takes  up  the  4th  of  the  scale,  and  descends  one  degree. 

At  c,  the  4th  has  descended  to  the  8th  of  the  dominant  chord. 

At  d,  the  4th  has  first  ascended  to  the  8th  of  the  dominant  chord,  returned  to 
its  place,  and  then  proceeded  according  to  the  original  rule. 

Observation  on  the  Foiirtli  Bide  of  accompanyinff  the  Scale. 

The  rule  says,  "when  the  5th  of  the  scale  is  repeated,  it  may  be  accompanied 
by  the  dominant."  Under  certain  circumstances,  however,  that  interval  maybe 
BO  accompanied  when  it  is  not  repeated;  as  in  the  following  example. 

*  See  also  retrospect,  page  M  to  S6. 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 


99 


Ex.96. 


It  will  be  remembered  that  this  rule,  as  well  as  the  others,  was  given  to  pro- 
duce variety  of  effect;  it  was  to  remove  monotony  in  the  harmony;  the  very 
expression,  "when  the  5th  is  repeated,'"  shows  the  nature  of  the  rule.  It  is  evi- 
dent also  that,  were  the  rule  in  the  original  form  continually  to  be  applied,  the 
very  evil  which  we  desire  to  prevent  must  inevitably  make  its  appearance.  This 
will  be  readily  comprehended  by  those  who  have  carefully  reflected  upon  the  pre- 
ceding matter. 

The  following  example  will  exhibit  in  a  practical  form  what  has  been  stated 
respecting  the  extension  of  the  second  and  fourth  rules  of  harmonizing. 


Ex.  97. 


At  a,  second  rule.     At  b,  fourth  rule. 

The  example  which  here  follows  may  be  considered  as  a  specimen  of  the 
various  ways  in  which  an  inverted  bass  may  be  constructed,  and  the  four  rules 
employed. 


Melody. 


Inv.  Bass. 
I. 

Ex.  98. 

Inv.  Bass. 
II. 


Inv.  Bass. 
III. 


TTf  r^—f^--fr 


m^. 


-4=s — 0  ,  gy- 


'I       \-4 


Peee^ 


^£^ 


6     5  6 


B     § 


TviiYmriziij:^^^*i'i^jjE^^ 


If  each  of  the  above  bass  parts  be  taken  as  a  separate  exercise,  and  the  alto 
and  tenor  added  (see  example  92),  the  pupil  will  then  be  able  to  judge  of  the  dif- 
ference of  effect,  arising  not  only  from  the  rules  for  the  choice  of  inverted  basses, 
but  also  from  the  four  rules  of  harmonizing  (see  page  48  to  51). 

Too  much  attention  cannot  be  paid  to  what  is  here  noticed,  as  it  is  only  by 
comparison  and  a  strict  attention  to  the  difference  thus  produced  that  the  judg- 
ment can  be  exercised  and  formed,  and  the  taste  improved. 


100  HARMONY  AND   COMPOSITION. 

The  preceding  exercise  should  not  be  regarded  as  merely  technical,  but  also 
as  intellectual;  for  example,  here  is  a  simple  melody,  it  has  no  claim  to  beauty, 
elegance,  or  expi-ession,  as  to  its  progression  or  rhythmetical  form:  this  melody, 
however,  becomes  the  prolific  source  of  others;*  each  of  which,  in  its  turn,  may 
also  become  the  source  of  many  more,  and  so  on  ad  infinitum.  When  this  fact 
presents  itself  to  our  mind,  that  all  this  can  be  effected  through  the  instrumentality 
of  only  three  chords,  and  these  produced  by  nature,  a  wide  field,  indeed,  is  open 
for  reflection. 

To  give  examples  of  all  the  variety  which  these  rules  so  abundantly  supply, 
would  be  quite  impossible ;  we  shall  only  remark,  in  conclusion,  that  if  the  pupil 
keeps  in  mind  the  original  principle  of  fundamental  basses, — from  whence  they  have 
emanated,  — the  four  rules  of  harmonizinfj  (as  arising  out  of  the  dominant  chord), 
the  variety  of  effect  produced  through  their  instrumentality  —  their  modulation 
(that  inexhaustible  mine  of  musical  wealth!),  the  introduction  of  inversions  (caus- 
ing an  amalgamation  of  the  four  parts,  by  which  a  new  character  is  infused  into 
the  whole  harmony);  furthermore,  if  he  refiects  that  the  originating  cause  of  all 
this  can  be  traced  to  the  simple  vibration  of  a  string,  etc., — that  it  is  not  the  inven- 
tion of  ?«an,  but  the  simple  operation  of  nature;  he  cannot  but  perceive  that  the 
matter,  thus  considered,  is  of  a  higher  order  than  the  mere  putting  together  of  a 
few  chords  for  the  purpose  of  gratifying  the  ear.  He  will  find  that,  abstractedly 
considered,  it  is  a  subject  perfectly  capable  of  creating  a  real  and  absolutely  intel- 
lectual enjoyment.^ 

*  Mark  the  inverted  basses,  which  may  all  become  bass  melodies,  and  then  be  reharmonized. 
t  It  will  be  seen  how  much  more  our  ideas  on  this  subject  will  be  enlarged  when  we  arrive  at  modulatioB 
by  tbe  intervals  of  a  melody. 


AN    ESSAY 


OX 


disso:n"a:^ces 

BY  suspe:^sioi^.* 


Hitherto  we  have  employed  only  such  harmonies  as  are  derived  from  the  com- 
mon chord,  and  the  chord  of  the  fundamental  7th ;  we  shall  now  proceed  to  intro- 
duce some  intervals  which  do  not  form  any  part  of  that  harmony. 

In  order  that  the  pupil  may  have  a  clear  view  of  the  subject  on  which  he  is 
about  to  enter,  it  is  necessary  that  he  should  take  a  retrospective  view  of  the  sev- 
eral processes  by  which  the  variety  of  effect,  up  to  the  present  time,  has  been 
accomplished.     Thus  — 

He  must  have  perceived,  after  the  discovery  of  the  fundamental  basses,t  that 
the  harmony  arising  from  them  consisted  of  common  chords  only;  |  that  this  har- 
mony was  afterwards  enriched  by  the  fundamental  7th;  and  that  thus  (another 
interval  being  added  to  the  harmony)  a  neio  effect  was  produced. §  He  must  have 
observed  that  the  fovir  rules  of  harmonizing,  ||  modulation,  inversion  in  modu- 
lation, T[  and,  last  of  all,  inversions  in  melodies,  **  all  formed  a  chain  of  causes 
and  effects,  unbroken  by  a  single  link ;  and  that  all  this  resulted  —  not  from  a 
theoi-y  suggested  by  ?nan  —  but  from  a  system  founded  in  natu7'f,  a^a  exhibited  in 
example  48. 

It  shall  now  be  shown  how  a  new  effect  may  be  introduced  into  the  harmony 
by  means  altogether  differing  from  those  which  have  been  hitherto  employed 
for  that  purpose. 

We  have  already  stated  that  our  harmony  up  to  the  present  time  has  consisted 
of  conunon  chords,  and  the  chord  of  the  fundamental  7th,  with  their  inversions, 
and  our  experience  has  sufficiently  shown  the  variety  which  these  chords  alone,  by 
a  judicious  management,  are  capable  of  producing;  yet,  as  the  constant  recur- 
rence of  these  (however  diversified  or  dissimilar  in  their  progression)  must  ulti- 
mately tire  the  ear,  means  have  been  found  to  remedy  this  defect  by  introducing 
intervals  into  the  harmony,  which  do  not  constitute  either  a  portion  of  the  common 
chord,  or  tliat  of  the  fundamental  7th. 

We  shall  endeavor  to  illustrate  this  by  the  following  example  : — 

Suppose  we  were  required  to  harmonize  the  melody  as  at  I.  According  to  the 
first  rule  of  harmonizing  it  would  appear  as  at  II. ;  and,  if  it  were  played  thus, 
th.e  eax -vio-aXd  YCi^t  perfectly  contented.  ^Tof  so  at  III.  Why?  Because  the  sound 
G,  at  bar  1,  instead  of  immediately  descending  to  F,  is  continued  in  bar  2,  and  the 
ear  experiences  a  certain  degree  of  disappoinment  —  a  degree  of  pain — it  desires 
to  hear  the  F,  and  when  the  F  at  last  arrives,  a  certain  degree  of  pleasure  is  expe- 
rienced; which,  although  purchased  at  the  expense  of  a  little  pain,  we  have  no 
objection  to  experience  again  on  the  same  terms. 

*  Dissonances  by  retardation  shall  be  explained  hereafter. 
♦  See  page  28.        %  Page  33  to  34.        §  Page  37  to  42.        II  Page  44  to  50.        T  Page  89  tol04.        »•  Page  97  to  1 02 

(ion 


102 


HARMOXy   AND   COMPOSITION. 


^ 


II.  III. 


Ex.  99. 


The  interval  which  produced  this  effect  is  called  a  dli^sonancc,*  and  the  chord 
to  Avhich  it  is  attached,  a  discord. 

When  an  interval  of  a  chord  is  thus  kept  back  in  a  gradual  descending  pro- 
gression, as  at  III.,  Ave  shall  call  it  a  siispension,  or  a  dissonance  by  suspension  ;  for 
example :  — 

At  III.,  as  G  suspends  the  8th  (F),  we  shall  call  it  the  dissonance  of  the  9th. 

as  F 3rd  (E),  it  will  be  the  dissonance  of  the  4th. 

as  E 5th  (D),  it  will  be  the  dissonance  of  the  Gth. 

These  comprise  all  the  dissonances  by  suspension. 

The  following  example  exhibits  the  discord  of  the  4th  in  its  different  posi- 
tions, produced  by  susjJending  the  3rd;  — 

At  a,  the  dissonance  is  m  the  soprano. 

At  b, alto. 

At  c, . tenor. 


The  discord  of  the  9th,  in  its  different  positions,  is  i^roduced  by  suspending 
the  Sth,  thus  — 


The  discord  of  the  ()th,  by  the  suspension  of  the  Tith.  in  its  three  positions: — ■ 


III. 


The  intervals  of  a  common  chord  — 3rd,  5th,  and  Sth  —  are  called  consonances;  any  oiher  interval,  there, 
fore,  is  a  dissonance.    Is  .B.,—  We  are  not  here  speaking  of  intervals  arising  from  inversions. 


HARMONY  AND   COMPOSITION. 


103 


It  will  be  perceived,  that  in  example  96  (III.)  the  sounds  which  produce  the 
discords  present  themselves  naturally  in  the  progression  of  the  descending  scale; 
they  are  first  heard  as  consoyiances,  after  that  as  dissonances,  and  then  (after  having 
descended,  or  —  in  other  words  —  proceeded  to  their  respective  places  from  which 
they  had  been  detained)  again  form  consonances.  From  this  circumstance  arises 
the 

Rule  for  the  Preparation  of  Dissonances. 

(A.)  In  whichsoever  of  the  four  parts  a  dissonance  appears,  in  that  part  also 
it  must  first  be  heard  as  a  consonance.  Or,  in  other  words,  thus:  —  In 
whatever  part  the  interval  appears  which  is  to  be  suspended,  in  the 
same  part  also  must  be  prepared  the  dissonance  which  suspends  it. 

Resolution  of  Dissonances  or  Discords. 
(B. )  In  whichsoever  part  the  dissonance  appears,  in  that  part  it  must  descend 
by  one  degree  into  the  same  consonance,  which  was  suspended.* 
This  is  called  the  resolution,  or  resolving  the  dissonance. 
For  instance,  in  the  preceding  example  100, 


At  I.,  a 

b- 

c- 

IL,  a- 

b- 

c  ■ 

UI.,a 

b- 
c- 


the  disso 
nance  of 


)  (  I'snrPTiarpd  )  \  ■a,cvasununct,iinu 

the  ( "^^^  )       in  the       (  soprano  by  the  8th,  ]  resolved  into  the 
'  '  ( 3rd  in  the   same 

[part. 


•  alto 
-  tenor 


9th 


-in  the  soprano 

alto 

tenor 


5th,     8th 


6th 


in  the  tenor 


3rd,     5th 


•  soprano - 
alto 


Dissonances  by  Suspension  in  the  ascending  Scale. 

Were  we  to  introduce  dissonances  only  when  the  scale  or  melody  gradually 
descends,  the  above  rule  for  the  preparation  of  dissonances  would  be  quite  super- 
fluous; but,  as  this  is  not  always  the  case,  we  shall  now,  instead  of  taking  the 
descending  scale,  employ  the  ascending,  in  which  dissonances  will  not  be  found 
naturally  prepared,  t 

In  the  following  example,  at  a,  the  harmony  ascends,  and  consists  of  concords 
only :  — 


P 


Ex.  loi. 


P 


8^-~s4  3 


^ 


S^P^^ 


$ 


i 


*  This  rule  admits  of  a  slight  exception,  which  shall  be  exi)laiiie(l  in  its  proper  place. 

t  Dissonances  which  are  naturally  prepared  In  the  ascending  scale,  are  called  retardations,  which  will  be 
lonnd  fully  explained  hereafter. 


i04 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 


At  b,  the  dissonance  of  the  4th  is  introduced  in  the  alto. 

Q.  Why  in  tlie  alto?  A.  Because  the  3rd,  into  which  it  resolves,  is  found 
in  that  part.     See  A,  page  103. 

Q.     Is  it  here  prepared?        No. 

At  c,  the  dissonance  is  prepared  in  the  same  part  where  it  afterwards  resolves. 
In  order  to  obtain  this  preparation,  we  have  divided  G  (the  semibreve  of  the  pre- 
ceding chord)  into  two  minims,  and  have  allowed  it  to  ascend  to  C  (the  8th),  as 
the  proper  preparation  of  the  dissonance  of  the  4th.* 

All  the  above  observations  as  to  preparation,  etc.,  etc.,  apply  equally  to  the 
other  dissonances. 

The  nature  of  dissonances  having  now  been  explained,  it  shall  be  shown  how 
and  where  they  can  be  introduced;  and  let  it  be  well  kept  in  mind,  that,  in  doing 
this,  we  are  to  be  guided  solely  and  alone  by  the  progression  of  the  fundamental 
bass. 

We  shall  commencse  with 

The  Dissonance  of  the  4th. 
(C.)     When  the  fundamental  bass  ascends  a  fifth,  or  descends  a  fourth  (which 
amounts  to  the  samet);  the  dissonance  of  the  4th  may  be  introduced,  pre- 
pared by  the  Sth,  and  resolved  into  the  Srd.  t 
In  order  that  the  pupil  may  have  a  correct  idea  of  the  preparation  and  resolu- 
tion of  this  dissonance,  and  the  manner  of  employing  it  effectively,  we  shall  for 
the  present  deviate  a  little  from  the  plan  hitherto  pursued;  and  instead  of  harmo- 
nizing an  air,  we  will  select  that  progression  of  fundamental  basses  which  will 
admit  of  its  introduction  in  a  regular  and  unbroken  series. 

The  following  example  at  I.,  exhibits  a  continued  progression  of  basses,  .5ths 
ascending,  or  4ths  descending. 


To  which,  at  II,  common  chords  or  concords  have  been  added.  This  we  shall 
call  a  consonant  harmony  or  harmony  of  concords,  in  contra-distinction  to  that 
which  is  produced  by  a  progression  of  dissonances,  called  dissonant  harmony,  or  a 
harmony  of  discords. 


II. 


•  See  A,  page  103. 

t  In  order  to  avoid  mistakes  and  repetitions,  with  regard  to  the  progressions  of  the  fundamental  bass,  on 
these  occasions,  we  shall  always  say  —  the  bass  ascends  a  bth,  although  the  bass  may  in  reality  descend  a  4tti, 
because  ascending  a  5th  or  descending  a  4th  produces  the  same  note. 

■  See  Example  100, 1, 


HAKMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 


105 


The  chords  haWng  been  written  as  in  the  above  example,*  and  the  3rd  of  each 
chord  particularly  distinguislied  by  the  fi^re  3,  the  pupil  must  examine  the  2>ro- 
gression  of  the  bass,  reasoning  thus;  — 

The  bass  proceeds  from  C  to  G  (ascending  a  5th),  consequently  I  may  have  the 
dissonance  of  the  4th. 

Here  he  should  write  the  figures  1 3,  or  simply  4  3,  the  figure  4  representing 
the  dissonance,  and  the  figure  3  its  resolution.! 

From  G  to  D,  a  4tfi  descending  ;  from  D  to  A,  a  yytli  ascending.  Thus  let  him 
go  through  the  entire  exercise,  and  figure  the  bass  accordingly.  He  may  then 
proceed  to  introduce  the  dissonances,  as  in  the  following  example,  reasoning 
thus :  — 


Exercise  on  the  Dissonance  of  the  ith,  prepared  by  the  8th. 
^: 2.  3.  4.  5,  6.  7- 


?eS 


Yg-y        -  —Gi-i—,^:^. 


E^E 


P 


«.      4       3 


^ 


S 


Ex.  icj. 


i 


S>        f^ 


^t^ 


^-t^- 


iSs^ 


z^- 


1^ 


^ 


3^ 


:*^ 


5 


I 


I 


i 


n  T     H 


0 


Q.  Here  (pointing  to  G,  bar  2)  I  can  introduce  the  4th;  but  in  which  of  the 
four  parts  should  I  write  it  ? 

A.  Where  the  3rd  (its  resolution)  is  found;  namely,  in  the  soprano,  bars 
2  and  7. 

For  the  same  reason  the  dissonance  must  be  written  in  the  alto  at  bars  3  and  8, 
and  in  the  tenor  at  4  and  6. 

Observe,  that  in  bars  2,  3,  4,  6,  7,  8,  the  dissonances  lie  already  prepared,  in 
the  same  part  where  the  resolution  is  found,  because  the  melody  descends;  but  at 
bars  4  and  5  the  case  is  different,  the  melody  ascends;  the  alto,  therefore  (in  order 
to  prepare  the  dissonance),  is  obliged  to  ascend  in  bar  4  to  the  octave,  t 

Let  the  pupil  now  write  an  exercise  himself  as  here  pointed  out,  the  chords  of 
which  may  either  be  major  or  minor,  or  a  mixture  of  both. 

N.B. — A  progression  of  fundamental  basses  ascending  uninterruptedly  by 
5ths  (or  descending  by  4ths),  will  conduct  us  through  all  the  keys  with  sharps; 
and,  if  no  enharmonic  change  is  introduced,  will  necessarily  carry  us  as  far  as 
tlie  key  of  B-sharp.§ 


*  In  writing  the  cliords,  tlic  pupil  must  avoid  all  skipping. 

t  Some  composers,  in  figuring  this  chord,  write  only  4  3,  except  when  the  5th  requires  an  ac- 
cidental, thus  '  1 7  D|  7  N  3-  N.B.—  The  dash  after  a  figure  shows  that  the  note  to  which  1; 
refers  is  to  be  continued  while  the  others  are  progressing. 

t  See  example  101,  c.  §  N.B.— Not  by  modulation. 


106 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 


The  pupil  is  strongly  recommended  to  play  these  exercises,  carefully  observ- 
ing the  different  effects  produced  between  the  consonant  and  (Zi.s.sonajii  harmony; 
and,  by  way  of  exercise,  to  take  the  fundamental  basses  of  melodies  already  har- 
monized, write  the  chords  to  them  as  pointed  out  above,  figure  the  bass,  and  then 
introduce  the  dissonances  where  the  progression  of  the  bass  icill  admit  of  it. 

To  show  the  importance  of  the  dissonance  of  the  4th,  and  the  value  of  the 
simple  rule  by  which  we  introduce  it  into  practical  composition,  we  shall  here 
exhibit  a  few  specimens  in  three  parts. 


Exercise,  shoiving  how  the  Dissonance  of  the  -ith  may  be  employed  for  the 
purpose  of  imitation,  * 


At  bar  1  the  soprano  ascends  to  G,  to  prepare  the  dissonance  at  bar  2,  where 
it  resolves  into  the  3rd.  The  soprano  continues  thus  to  prepare  the  dissonance 
until  it  arrives  at  bar  7,  where  the  strain  ends  in  B  minor. 

Now  let  us  observe  that,  while  the  soprano  ascends  in  bar  1  to  G,  to  prepare 
the  dissonance  at  2,  the  alto  performs  a  similar  operation  by  ascending  in  bar  2  to 
D,  to  prepare  the  dissonance  at  3 :  and,  while  the  soprano  thus  continues  to  pre- 
pare and  resolve  the  dissonance,  the  alto  proceeds  in  a  similar  manner,  and  follows 
the  soprano  a  4th  lower, t  until  at  the  6th  bar,  as  has  been  stated  already,  the 
strain  ends  in  B  minor. 

At  the  8th  bar,  the  alto  commences  and  continues  the  same  melody  which  the 
soprano  commenced  at  bar  1,  and  the  soprano  takes  up  the  subject  of  the  alto  at 
bar  9.  The  soprano  now  continues  to  follow  the  alto  a  5th  higher  as  far  as  the 
13tli  bar,  where,  by  a  few  modulations,  the  harmony  is  carried  back  to  the 
original  key. 

We  shall  here  exhibit  the  same  exercise  in  four  parts,  where  the  tenor  par- 
ticipates in  the  imitation. 

X  To  the  Professor  — We  feel,  however,  that,  in  doing  so,  we  are  rather  travelling  out  of  our 
usual  simple  course. 

§  When  two  or  more  parts  move  thus,  it  is  called  imitation.  When  each  part  is  imitated  as 
above,  it  is  called  a  canonical  imitation  or  canon.  The  first  7  bars  contain  a  canon  in  tlie  4th  be- 
low, and  from  the  7th  to  the  I3th  a  canon  in  the  .5th  al)()ve. 


HAKMOXY   AND   COMPOSITION. 


101 


Exercise  of  the  Dissonance  of  the  4th,  in  four  parts,  employed  for  the  purpose 

of  imitation. 
I.  2.  3.  4.  c.  6. 


H     i 


This  -will  suffice  to  show  what  may  be  effected  by  the  simple  rule,  viz. :  When 
the  fundamental  bass  asceyids  a  oth  etc.,  etc.  We  shall  now  proceed  to  the  intro- 
duction of 

The  Dissonance  of  the  9th. 
'D.)    When  the  fundamental  bass  ascends  a  4th  (or  descends  a  5th),  the  Qth  may 

be  introduced,  prepared  by  the  oth,  and  resolved  into  the  8th. 
As  this  is  the  same  progression  which  is  required  in   modulation  (viz.  from 
dominant  to  tonic),  we  shall  make  a  few  modulations,  for  the  purpose  of  intro- 
ducing this  dissonance. 

Exercise  on  the  Dissonance  of  the  9th  prepared  by  the  5th. 


Ex.  io6. 


9         H  S 


Inv.  Bass.bS  I 9 


Fund.  Bass, 


t  To  i)ievfiit  IfdgtT  lines,  the  tenor  part  is  here  written  in  the  bass  clef. 
*  To  be  more  fully  explained  by  and  by. 


108 


HARMON^Y  AXD    COMPOSITION". 


At  a,  the  tenor  proceeds  from  the  3rd  to  the  5th  of  the  chord*  to  prepare  th« 
9th,  which  appears  at  b,  where  it  resolves  into  tlie  8th. 


Q.    Why  does  that  dissonance  appear  in  the  tenor  ? 
tion  is  found  there. 


A.    Because  its  resolu- 


At  c,  the  soprano  has  descended  to  the  5th  of  the  chord  to  prejiare  the  9th, 
which  ajjpears  at  d,  and  resolves  into  the  8th. 
At  e,  the  alto  performs  the  same  process. 
As  the  bass  at  g  has  ascended  a  5th,  we  introduce  a  4th,  prepared  by  the  8th. 

N.B.  —  It  will  have  been  remarked,  that  where  the  3rd  ascends  to  the  5th  of 
the  chord,  to  prepare  the  9th,  the  first  inversion,  g,  is  employed,  to  preserve  the 
harmony  complete. 

We  shall  now  return  to  our  three  original  fundamental  basses,  and  harmonize 
the  ascending  and  descending  scale,  introducing  both  the  9th  and  4th  wherever  the 
progression  of  the  bass  will  permit. 

Ascending  and  descending  Scale,  toith  Dissonances  of  the  4th  and  Qth. 

b.  c. d.  e.  f.  g.  h. 


Ex.  107. 


The  Fund.  Bass,  is  occasionally  represented  by  the  dots. 


From  a  to  6,  from  d  to  e,  from  i  to  k,  from  n  to  0,  and  from  0  to  p,  the  basses 
ascend  by  oths  ;  consequently  the  4th  prepared  by  the  8th  may  be  introduced. 

From  b  to  c,  from  c  to  d,  from  e  to/,  from  g  to  h,  from  }ii  to  n,  from  p  to  y,  the 
basses  ascend  by  4ths;  consequently  the  9th  is  prepared  bj'  the  5th. 

Q.    The  bass,  at  h,  has  ascended  a  4th;  why  have  we  not  introduced  the  9th? 

A.  As  a  diftsonance  is  the  representative  of  a  consonance  into  which  it  subse- 
quently resolves,  it  is  clear  that  the  consonance  and  the  dissonance  which  suspends 
that  consonance  cannot  be  permitted  to  appear  at  one  and  the  same  time;  we  must 


Let  it  be  kept  in  ni-nd  that  the  intervals  are  here  always  counted  from  the  fundamentai 


bass. 


HARMONY  AND   COMPOSITIOISr. 


109 


tlierefore  be  very  careful,  when  the  9th,  for  instance,  is  introduced  in  one  part, 
that  the  8th  does  not  appear  in  another  part  of  the  same  cliord  at  the  sa7ne  time. 
This  remark,  of  course,  applies  to  all  other  dissonances  whatsoever;  see  x,  where 
the  susjjension  of  the  8th  in  the  alto,  and  the  octave  in  the  soprano  appear  on  the 
same  chord  at  the  same  time. 

Q.    Why  has  not  the  3rd  of  the  dominant  chord,  at  p,  ascended  ? 

A.  For  the  same  reason  as  stated  already;  in  order  to  make  room  for  the  9th,* 
the  3rd  in  this  instance  has  been  permitted  to  descend  to  the  5th  of  the  tonic. 

We  shall  now  introduce 

The  Fundamental  1th,  combined  with  the  Dissonances  of  the  9th  and  4th  ; 

Preparatory  to  which,  it  will  be  necessary  to  point  out  some  peculiarities  con- 
cerning these  dissonances  worthy  of  observation. 

1st.  — The  fundamental  7th  is  derived  from  Nature,  and  therefore  requires  no 
preparation.     (See  example  48.) 

2nd.  — Dissonances,  being  artificial,  must  always  be  prepared. 

3rd.  —  The  fvindamental  7th  does  not  resolve  upon  the  same  bass. 

4th.  — Dissonances  do  resolve  upon  the  same  bass.t 

The  fandamental  7th  partakes  of  the  natui-e  of  a  consonance  as  well  as  of  a 
dissonance. 

As  a  consonance,  requiring  no  preparation.  As  a  dissonance,  requiring  to  be 
resolved. 

Dissonance  of  the  4th,  prepared  by  the  fundamental  1th. 

The  fundamental  7th,  therefore,  considered  as  a  consonance,  may  prepare  a 
dissonance;  that  is,  the  7tb,  before  resolving  into  the  3rd,  may  be  su.^pended,  pro- 
ducing the  dissonance  of  the  4th;  and  thus  when  the  bass  proceeds  from  the 
dominant  to  its  tonic,  the  dissonance  of  the  4th  may  be  introduced,  prepared  by 
the  7th. 

In  order  to  exhibit  this  dissonance  in  a  practical  form,  we  shall  again  make  a 
few  modulations. 

Exercise  on  the  Dissonance  of  the  4th,  prepared  by  the  fundamental  1th. 


Ex.  io8. 


Fund.  Bass, 


•  When  we  arrive  at  accendin;/  dissonances,  called  retardations,  these  licenses  (as  they  ar« 
called)  will  be  dispensed  with. 

T  Exception  to  this  rule  shall  he  shown  hereafter. 


no 


HARMONY  AND   COMPOSITION. 


At  a,  the  7th  has  prepared  tlie  4th  in  the  tenor,  which  at  b,  resolves  upon  the 
same  bass  into  the  3rd. 

At  c,  that  dissonance  is  thus  prepared  in  the  soprano  ;  at  e,  in  the  alto  ;  at  y, 
in  the  tenor. 

The  pupil  is  recommended  (by  way  of  exercise)  to  make  a  few  modulations,* 
Introducing;  the  dissonance  of  the  4th,  thus  prepared  by  the  fundamental  7th. 

If  we  examine  examples  10(3  and  108,  we  lind  that  the  progression  of  the  bass 
in  modulation  (from  dominant  to  tonic)  is  the  same  as  ascending  a  4th;  and  hence 
it  follows  that  both  these  dissonances,  viz.,  the  9th  prepared  by  the  5th,  and  the 
4th  prepared  by  the  7th,  may  be  introduced  conjointly  upon  the  same  bass,  thus 
forming  a  progression  of 

Compound  dissonances  of  the  4th  and  9th. 

Exercise  on  the  4th,  prepared  by  the  1th  ;  the  4th  prepared  by  the  Sth;  and 
the  9th  prepared  by  the  hta. 


b?     I?4 


Fund.  Bass 


At  b,  the  bass  ascends  a  Sth,  dissonance  of  the  4th,  prepared  by  the  8th,  in  the 
soprano. 

At  c,  bass  ascends  a  4th,  or  from  dominant  to  tonic;  the  4th  prepared  by 
the  7th. 

At  (?,  I>nth  dissonances  appear  in  the  soprano  and  alto. 

At/,  in  the  alto  and  tenor. 

At  h,  in  the  soprano  and  tenor,  etc. 

Observe  the  interchamje  of  intervals  between  the  tenor  and  inverted  bass  at  e, 
between  the  alto  and  inverted  bass  at  f/,  and  between  the  tenor  and  inverted 
bass  at  i. 

The  following  is  an  example  of  accompanying,  on  the  pianoforte,  a  liarmony 
comprising  discords;  it  contains  all  the  harmony  of  the  preceding  example,  and 
the  pupil  is  recommended  to  play  it. 

N.B.  — The  figures  point  out  the  preparatio7i  and  resolution  of  the  dissonance. 

It  will  be  observed  that  some  of  the  intervals  of  the  chords  in  the  bass  are 
doubled ;  in  doing  so,  however,  care  has  been  taken  that  none  of  them,  thus 
introduced,  appear  as  suspensions  elsewhere  in  the  harmony,  t 

*  See  Part  III,  on  moilulatioii.  t  See  Obs.  page  ion,  and  s,  at  tlie  end  of  example  JO? 


HARMONY  AND   COMPOSITION. 


in 


Ex.  no 


n*- 


S -"*"  9 ■"*      « ~*     4 3 


In  the  preceding  examples,  it  will  have  been  noticed  that  a  particular  progres- 
sion of  the  fundamental  bass  has  been  especially  selected  for  the  purpose  of 
introducing  the  dissonances;  that  object  having  been  effected,  we  shall  now 
return  to  our  original  plan  of  harmonizing  a  melody;  and  then  (guided  by  the 
progression  of  its  fundamental  basses)  introduce  such  dissonances  as  those  pro- 
gressions will  admit  of. 


A  Melody  Harmonized  with  Diasonancex. 


Ex.  loi. 


The  consecutive  stlis,  between  the  tenor  and  bass,  and  the  consecutive  8tlis,  between  the  alto 
and  bass,  as  the  harmony  proceeds  from  bar  5  to  c,  are  avoided  by  the  bass  moving  by  con- 
trary motion  —  that  is,  the  bass  descends,  while  the  other  two  parts  ascend. 

We  shall  analyze  the  foregoing  exercise  by  a  few  interrogations. 
Q.    (Bar  2.)    By  what  rule  are  you  enabled  to  introduce  here  the  dissonance  of 
the  4th  ? 

A.    Because  the  fundamental  bass  ascends  a  5th.* 


'  See  page  104,  C 


112 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 


Q.    Why  does  the  dissonance  appear  in  the  soprano  ? 

A.    Because  the  3rd  of  the  chord  (its  resolution)  is  found  there.  * 

Q.  (Bar  3. )  By  what  rule  have  you  here  introduced  the  9th  ?  and  why  does 
it  appear  in  the  soprano  ? 

A.  Because  the  fundamental  bass  there  aftcends  a  4th,  consequently  I  can 
introduce  a  9th ;t  —  it  must  apj^ear  in  the  soprano,  because  its  resolution  (the  8th) 
is  found  there. 

Q.  On  what  principle  have  you  introduced  the  4th  in  the  same  bar,  for  the 
bass  does  not  nscend  a  5th  ? 

A.  Because  F,  the  dominant,  proceeds  to  its  tonic  (B-flat),  we  can  have  a  7th. 
This  I'th  prepares  the  4tli  (in  bar  2),  and  is  resolved,  in  conjunction  with  the  9th 
(in  bar  3). 

Q.  But  how  can  the  7th,  which  partakes  of  the  nature  of  a  dissonance, 
prepare  a  disscmance  ? 

A.  Because  the  fundamental  7th  partakes  of  the  nature  of  a  consonance  too, 
as  it  requires  no  preparation]  t  the  fundamental  7th  may  therefore  prepare  a 
dissonance. 

Dissonance  of  the  6th,  j^repared  by  the  Zrd. 

The  pupil  is  aware  that,  wlien  the  fundamental  bass  ascends  a  5th,  the  disso- 
nance of  the  4th  may  be  introduced.  §  It  shall  now  be  shown  that,  when  the  bass 
ascends  thus,  the  dissonance  of  the  6th  may  likewise  be  introduced;  consequently 
both  these  dissonances  may  be  employed  conjointly. 

In  the  following  exarai)le  at  a  and  c  is  exhibited  the  simple  dissonance  of  the 
Oth,  prepared  by  the  3rd,  and  resolved  into  the  5th,  as  already  shown  at  page  102; 
it  h  and  e,  both  of  these  dissonances  appear  conjointly. 


£x.  112. 


The  above  exercise  is  a  practical  illustration  of  the  manner  in  which  these 
discords  may  be  employed  with  the  best  effect. 

It  has  been  shown,  and  cannot  be  too  strongly  impressed  upon  the  minil  of 
the  pupil,  that  the  introduction  of  dissonances  are  in  every  case  regulated  by  the 
progression  of  the  fundamental  bass;  and,  in  order  that  he  may  see  the  utmost 
extent  to  which  a  dissonant  harmony  may  be  carried,  we  shall  here  give  an 
example  which  exhibits  every  progression  of  which  the  fundamental  bass  is 
capable,  and,  consequently,  every  dissonance  by  suspension  that  can  be  introduced 
into  harmony. 


Ex.113. 


'  Fa;rt  103,  K.     t  See  page  107,  D.     X  See  page  109.     §  See  page  104,  C. 


HARMONY  AND   COMPOSITION. 


118 


I,  when  the  fundamental  bass  ascends  a  2nd,  the  ]    ^^,   ^     ^ •'  -l^ 


b, 
c, 
d, 
c, 

/, 


-ord,- 
-4th,- 


4th- 

—  6th- 

i    9th- 

i    4th- 


-5th, i    6th 

i    4th 

-Hth 


oth. 
8th. 
r)th. 
Tth. 
3rd. 
Sth. 


-Ttli,- 


N.B.     Asi  ending  a  7th,  or  descending  a  2nd 

6th —  3rd 

Sth 4th 


No  dissonance. 
(    !)th  prepared  by  the  Sth. 

-  ]    Oth  5th. 

(    4th  ;3rd. 

amount  to  the  same  thing. 


It  appears  by  the  above  example  at  /,  that  when  the  bass  descends  a  2nd,  we 
can  introduce  the  9th,  6th,  and  4th.  But  it  is  only  the  4th  that  can  in  this  instance 
be  permitted  to  appear  legitimately;  for,  as  the  suspension  is  the  representative  of 
the  consonance  into  which  it  resolves,  it  is  manifest,  were  we  to  prepare  the  9th 
by  the  Sth,  that  the  ear,  anticipating  the  resolution,  would  be  impressed  with  the 
approach  of  consecutive  octaves;  for  instance  — 


Ex.  114. 


At  a,  in  the  above  example,  we  find  consecutive  octaves ;  at  6,  9th  prepared 
by  the  Sth  —  can  this  be  permitted?  at  c,  consecutive  oths;  at-c?,  6th  prepared  by 
the  5th  —  can  tMs  be  permitted?  at  e,  consecutive  3rds;  at/,  4th  prepax'ed  by  the 
3rd  —  this  is  perfectly  correct. 

The  following  exercise  is  a  melody  harmonized  with  dissonances;  and,  if  the 
soprano  be  sung  or  played,  the  inner  parts  may  be  considered  as  an  accompaniment. 


d. 


Ex.  115 


At  a,  the  chord  of  the  |  appears  by  inversion,  and  at  }>  and  d,  by  s^ispension;* 
ftt  e,  the  9th  is  prepared  by  the  Sth;  at/  (j,  prepared  by  the  3rd.t 


*  See  Example  120,  a,  b,  and  explanation. 


t  See  example  113,  a 


114 


HARMONY   AND   COMPOSITION. 


It  will  be  necessary,  before  we  pursue  our  subject  of  dissonances  furtlier,  to 
make  the  pupil  acquainted  with  what  is  called  the 

Arcejited  and  unaccented  Part  of  a  Bar. 

To  enter  fully  on  this  matter  at  jjresent  would  be  out  of  place;  all  that  it  is 
necessary  for  our  purpose  now  to  state  is,  that  in  a  bar  of  common  time,  whether 
it  contains  two  minims,  two  crotchets,  etc.,  or  their  equivalent,  the  first  part  only 
is  called  accented,  and  the  second  half  unaccented  (as  in  tlie  example  I.).  When  a 
bar  contains  tliree  minims,  three  crotchets,  etc.,  or  their  equivalent,  then  the  last 
portion  is  called  unaccented  (at  II.). 


ix.  ii6. 


m 


^ 


It  is  a  .sjeneral  rule,  that  dissonances  should  be  prepared  on  an  unaccented  part 
of  a  bar  (example  117,  a),  appear  on  the  accented  part  {h),  and  be  resolved  on  the 
unaccented  (c),  and  that  the  note  which  prepares  the  dissonance  be  at  least  of  the 
same  duration  of  time  as  the  dissonance  itself.  * 


Ex.  117. 


a.       b.      c. 


a.    b.    c. 


a.      b.        c. 


It  is  necessary  to  observe,  that  these  rules  have  reference  chiefly  and  primarily 
to  compositions  of  the  old  school,  the  strict  style,  as  it  is  called  t  (in  contra- 
distinction to  what  is  called  the  free  style)  |  the  latter  of  which  does  not  command 
a  very  close  observance  of  them.     The  following  example  is  an  illustration. 


It.        a.         u. 


Ex.  118. 


Here,  although  the  dissonances  are  prepared  on  the  unaccented  part  of  the 
bar,  and  by  notes  of  equal  duration  with  the  dissonances  themselves,  yet  they  do 
not  (except  at  the  5th  bar),  resolve  (strictly  speaking)  on  the  unaccented  part  of 
the  bar. 

The  following  example  exhibits  a  still  stronger  illustration  of  what  has  been 
stated,  for,  at  bars  1  and  3,  the  6th  is  prepared  u])on  the  accented  (instead  of  the 
un-accented),  and  is  struck  on  the  luiaccented,  (instead  of  the  accented)  part  of  the 
bar. 

•Never  were  there  rules  which  admit  of  more  exceptions,  or  are  less  regarded,  especially  in 
the  composition  of  modern  music,  than  the  above.       t  Church  music,  fugues,  etc. 
}  Modern  nnisic  in  general,  sonatas,  concertos,  songs,  etc. 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 


115 


Ex.  119. 


Ex.  120. 


a.    b., 


WMS^^ 


wrrthf^ 


This  deviation  from  the  strict  rule  of  preparation  and  resolution  of  disso- 
nances, may  be  considered  as  the  medium  between  the  strict  and  free  *  styles  of 
writing. 

From  what  has  been  shown  above,  it  is  clear  that  there  are  tvw  chords  of  the 
I,  one  arising  out  of  the  second  inversion  of  the  common  chord, t  and  another  out 
of  suspensions.  J  They  may,  however,  be  easily  distinguished,  as  the  former 
requires  neither  ijreparation  nor  resolution,  and  the  latter  requires  both.  This 
distinction  is  clearly  demonstrated  in  example  120,  where  at  a,  the  chord  of  the  | 
by  inversion  (being  derived  from  a  concord)  prepares  the  discord  of  the  |  at  6  ; 
and  thus  the  nature  of  each  chord,  and  its  origin,  is  immediately  discovered. 

As  frequent  opportunities  will  hereafter  present  themselves  for  illustrating 
this  subject,  we  shall  at  once  proceed  to  the  inversioyis  of  discords  ;  and  let  it  be 
observed,  if  the  pupil  has  well  understood  and  practised  what  he  has  learned  of 
inversions  (as  explained  throughout  Part  IV),  he  will  not  experience  the  slightest 
difficulty  in  comprehending  the  subject  upon  which  he  is  now  going  to  enter. 

With  respect  to  the  figuring  of  the  inverted  basses  with  dissonances,  the  pupil 
is  advised  to  read  with  attention  what  is  stated  at  page  116  and  117  on  that  subject. 

We  shall  select  the  ascending  and  descending  diatonic  scales  for  our  next 
exercise,  presuming  that  the  pupil  himself  has  harmonized  it  with  inverted  basses, 
that  he  has  carefully  examined  the  progression  of  the  fundamental  basses,  has 
ascertained  where  dissonances  may  be  introduced,  and  figured  the  basses,  as 
shown  in  all  the  preceding  examples ;  then  let  us  ask  the  following  questions. 


Ex.  121. 


itlf=^bf=^ 


r 


f-T 


illsz: 


^^ 


Inv.  Bass., 


tl7  fl*     3, 


^^ 


-fa- 


Fund.  Bass. 


tl7  tt* 


tt|      T 


1 


Q.   Wliat  dissonance  can  we  introduce  in  the  second  bar  ?       A.    The  fourth. 
Q.   Why  ?        A.   Because  the  fundamental  bass  ascends  a  fifth. 
Q.   In  which   of  the  four  parts   must  the  dissonance  appear  ?      A.   In  the 
inverted  bass. 

Q.   Why  ?        A.    Because  the  third  of  the  chord  is  there. 

Q.    How  has  the  4th  been  prepared '?     A.  By  the  ociare  in  the  preceding  chord. 


•  The  free  style  even  admits  dissonances  ef  every  description  unprepared,  altliough  thej 
are  generally  resolved. 


t  See  Example  83. 


t  See  113,  d. 


116 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 


Q.  lias  the  4th  resolved  properly?  A.  Yes;  it  has  descended  into  the  3rd* 
of  the  chord. 

Q.  How  has  the  4th  been  prepared  in  bar  4  ?  A.  By  the  fundamental  7th 
in  the  preccdin<^  chord,  t 

Q.  From  where  have  you  that  7th  ?  A.  G,  the  bass,  is  the  dominant  to 
C,  and  thus  a  7th  may  be  introduced  at  .">;  the  dissonance  appears  again  in  the 
inverted  bass  at  8  h\  tlie  tenor,  prepared  by  tlie  7th. 

Q.  Why  has  the  4tli  not  been  introduced  at  bars  3  and  (i,  as  the  progression  of 
the  fundamental  bass  would  permit  ?  A.  Because  tlie  3rd  of  the  chord  is  in 
the  soprano ;  and  were  we  to  suspend  it  in  the  tenor  where,  in  fact,  that  disso- 
nance would  be  prepared  by  the  7tli),  then  the  3rd,  as  well  as  its  suspension; 
would  be  heard  together.  J 

Let  the  pupil  now  introduce  the  dissonances  into  the  descending  scale. 


ISX.  122. 


In  the  above  exercise,  bar  3,  the  dissonance  of  the  9th  is  prepared  by  the  .3rd; 
and  at  4  and  7  the  dissonance  of  the  (itli  is  combined  with  the  fundamental  7th. 
This  mixture  of  dissonances  is  very  effective. 

That  the  dissonance  and  the  consonance  which  it  susi)ends  must  never  be  heard 
together,  has  been  stated  more  than  once;  nevertheless,  as  an  error  in  this  par- 
ticular is  easily  committed  when  dissonances  are  introduced  into  inverted  basses 
» especially  wlien  a  licensed  7th  is  employed),  the  pupil  is  advised  to  pay  great 
attention  to  the  faulty  progressions  which  are  exhibited  at  c,  e,  y,  and  h,  in  the 
following  exercise. 


a.       b. 


f. 


£x.  123. 


to '^?Pt^^r^'^-"=^"^'^:::^f^'''p 


ts^zc^^riftlST: 


;^g 


At  «,  a  licensed  7th  appears  in  the  tenor;  which,  at  h,  has  descended  into  the 
3rd,  and  thus  far  all  is  correct;  but,  at  c,  that  3rd  is  suspended,  while,  at  the  same 
time,  the  3rd  is  heard  in  the  soprano.  At  d,  the  5tli  is  in  tlie  tenor,  and  descends 
into  the  8th,  as  it  ought ;%  but  at  e,  the  5th,  instead  of  descending  to  the  8th, 
suspends  that  interval,  whilst  the  soprano  has  ascended  to  it,  and  tlius  the  9tli  and 
8th  are  heard  together.  At/,  all  is  right;  but,  at  g,  the  3rd  appears  in  the  tenor, 
while  the  inverted  bass  suspends  it  at  the  same  time.  At  A,  licensed  7th  in  the 
Inverted  bass,  3rd  in  the  soprano  —  wrong. 

*  See  page  103,  B.  \  See  K>aiiii)l(>  108.  t  See  page  after  Example  lOT,  as. 

§  See  Example  120,  bars  \  and  & 


HARMONY   AND   COMPOtSITION. 
The  following  melody  is  harmonized  with  various  dissonances. 


117 


Ex.  124. 


In  bar  4,  the  alto,  after  having  resolved  the  9th,  ascends  immediately  to  the 
5th,  to  prepare  the  9th  in  bar  5.  This  ascending  to  the  5th  was  a  necessary  step, 
as  the  melody  ascended.  § 

At  bars  7  and  9,  the  4th  is  prepared  by  the  5th.  Why  '?  Because  the  funda- 
mental bass  ascends  a  sec.ond.W 

At  bars  7  and  9,  the  fourth  is  prepared,  but  the  6th  is  loi-prepared;  this  pro- 
gression is  called  a  cadence,  which  will  be  found  explained  at  example  125,  c. 

X.B.  — It  would  tend  very  much  towards  the  improvement  of  the  pupil  (not 
merely  as  it  regards  dissonances,  but  in  other  respects  also),  were  he  to  re-har- 
monize the  above  exercise,  without  dissonances  or  inverted  basses,  proceeding  after 
that  to  add  the  inverted  basses  and  dissonances,  and  then  to  compare  his  oion 
production  with  the  original  exercise. 

We  shall  now  (at  least  for  the  present)  discontinue  to  harmonize  melodies 
with  dissonances,  and  proceed  through  a  short  course  of  modulation,  into  which 
they  shall  all  l>e  introduced;  preparatoiy,  however,  to  this  it  will  be  necessary 
that  the  pupil  be  made  acquainted  with  a  certain  progression  of  chords  called  a 
cadence,  which,  when  heard  towards  the  end  of  a  composition,  or  judiciously 
iiiterwoven  Avith  modulation,  is  calculated  to  conduct  the  ear  gently  to  a  state  of 
repose. 

There  are  several  species  of  cadences ;  the  most  simple  of  these  is  — 

The  Perfect  Cadence, 

When  the  chord  of  the  fundamental  1th,  or  dominant  chord,  proceeds 
direct  to  the  tonic. 

All  the  others  may  be  considered  as  auxiliaries,  preparing  the  way,  and  lead- 
ing to  this,  by  which  a  final  close  is  ultimately  effected. 


Ex.  125. 


iHii^ii^i 


At  I.,  is  exhibited  a  i)erfect  cadence,  with  which  the  pupil  is  fully  ;ic(}u;iinte(l 
(excepting,  perhaps,  only  the  name). 


§  See  Example  101,  and  observations. 
•  Example  128,  bars  1,  2,  3.  t  Ditto,  bar  42. 


II  See  Example  113,  o. 

t  Ditto  bars  12. 13. 


118 


HARMONY  AND   COMPOSITION. 


It  must  have  been  observed,  that  by  a  continued  course  of  modulation  the  ear 
is  kept  in  a  constant  state  of  excitement,  approaching  absolutely  to  a  painful  sen- 
sation, so  that  it  becomes  desirous  of  rest.  To  stop  suddenly,  however,  upon  any 
tonic,  or  key,  at  which  we  may  have  arrived,  would  be  anything  but  satisfactory; 
therefore,  when  we  may  have  modulated  to  any  key,  and  desire  to  come  to 
a  decided  and  satisfactory  close,  there  the  ear  must  be  gradully  prepared  and 
sootlied  into  a  quiescent  state  by  the  introduction  of  a  few  chords,  so  constructed 
that  they  shall  not  only  have  a  tendency  to  conduct  to  a  state  of  rest,  but  shall 
also  be  calculated  to  produce  a  strong  impression  of  the  key  in  which  it  is 
intended  the  close  shall  take  place. 

The  only  chords  suited  for  this  purpose  are  those  of  the  subdominant  and 
dominant,  for  it  will  be  found  that  these  chords,  together  witli  that  of  the  tonic, 
embrace  all  the  intervals  of  the  diatonic  scale,  so  that,  in  fact,  by  hearing  these 
three  chords  at  the  close  of  the  modulation,  we  receive  an  impression  of  every 
interval  of  the  key  in  which  we  thus  desire  to  conclude.  The  above  cadence  at  a, 
is  a  specimen. 

However,  as  a  frequent  recurrence  of  these  chords  would  produce  monotony, 
the  dissonance  of  the  4th  is  introduced  (as  nth),  which,  in  some  measure,  removes 
this  objection. 

On  account  of  the  frequency  of  the  final  cadence,  composers  have  not  only 
been  induced  to  seek  for  every  possible  variety,  but  sometimes  have  even  endeav- 
ored to  avoid  it.  * 

In  seeking  for  this  variety,  some  liberties  have  been  taken;  for  instance,  the 
dissonance  of  the  6th  has  been  introduced  unprepared,  producing  thus  a  discord 
of  the  I  (c).  Another  liberty  was  subsequently  taken  with  the  chord  of  the  sub- 
dominant,  by  adding  to  it  the  0th,  and  calling  it  "the  chord  of  the  added  6th,"'  t 
omitting  the  cliord  of  the  |  altogether,  as  in  the  following  example  139  (d). 


Ex.  126. 


N.B.  — The  'Ah.  in  the  chord  of  the  added  6th  is  generally  prepared,  as  if  it 
were  a  dissonance.  Sometimes  the  5th  of  the  subdominant  chord  is  omitted,  and 
the  added  6th  doubled  (e);  and  sometimes  the  octave  is  employed  instead  of  the 
5th  (/).  N.B.  —  When  the  key  is  minor,  then  the  chord  of  the  subdominant  must 
be  minor  too  (/,  y). 

Figuring  Inverted  Dissonances. 

Having  explained  the  nature  of  such  cadences  as  are  immediately  necessary 
for  our  purpose,  we  shall  now  show  their  practical  use  in  a  course  of  modula- 
tion, in  which  siiall  be  introduced  every  dissonance,  as  exhibited  in  example  126. 

A  few  hints  respecting  the  proper  figuring  of  inverted  basses  when  disso- 
nances are  introduced,  as  also  the  principle  upon  which  this  figui-ing  is  established, 
shall  first  be  given;  and  to  this  it  is  requested  the  pupil  will  pay  strict  attention. 


*  From  this  circumstance  have  arisen  those  cadences  called  false,  imperfect,  etc.,  all  of 
which  sliall  l)e  explained  in  their  proper  places. 

t  The  pupil  must  uot  consider  this  chord  as  the  first  inversion  |  of  the  fundamental  7th.  See 
other  side. 


HAKMONY   AXD   COMPOSITION. 


119 


First  of  all,  let  him  remember  that,  besides  the  bass,  there  are  only  three  inter- 
vals which  form  the  common  chord,  8,  5,  3;  and  as  each  of  these  intervals,  in  its 
progression,  may  be  suspended,  it  is  clear  that  there  can  be  only  three  suspen- 
sions, viz.,  9th,  6th,  and  4th  :  that  all  dissonances  by  suspension  (in  whatever  form 
they  may  appear)  are  comprised  in  the  above. 

The  8th,  suspended  by  the  9th,  which  may  be  prepared  by  any  consonance 
except  the  8th. 

5th, 6th,  prepared  by  any  consonance  but  the  5th. 

3rd, 1th,  may  be  prepared  by  any  consonance,  as  also 

the  fundamental  7th. 

From  this  view  of  the  subject,  it  is  evident  that,  were  no  other  than  fundamental 
harmonies  employed,  the  figures  exhibited  above,  together  with  the  fundamental 
7th,  would  suffice  to  express  every  chord  required  in  harmony,*  But,  as  these 
chords  maybe  inverted,!  it  follows,  when  an  inversion  takes  place,  that  the  name, 
as  well  as  the ^^ures  of  the  original  intervals,}:  must  be  changed  also;  and  were  we 
to  employ  no  dissonances,  t7ien  the  figures  which  are  requii-ed  for  the  purpose  of 
expressing  the  three  inversions  of  the  fundamental  7th,  and  the  two  inversions  of 
the  common  chord,  would  suflice  to  express  every  chord  in  music  ;§  but,  as  the 
intervals  which  arise  from  inversions  may  be  suspended,  it  follows  that  the  sus- 
pensions must  necessarily  require  to  be  figured  also. 

Under  these  circumstances,  it  is  evident  that  an  entirely  new  kind  of  figuring 
would  becomfe  necessary;  and  chords,  the  figuring  of  which  in  their  simple  inver- 
sions were  easily  understood  and  as  easily  remembered,  would  now  become  so 
complicated  and  involved,  that  unless  some  means  were  found  to  remedy  this  evil, 
great  embarrassment  would  be  the  consequence.  To  this  end  it  was  found  advis- 
able to  figure  the  dissonance  onli/,  and  then  to  extend  lines  back  over  the  bass 
from  those  figures  the  intervals  of  which  remained  unsuspended,  and  thus  the 
inversion  of  the  chord,  in  its  simple  state,  would  instantly  be  recognized.  We 
shall  illustrate  this. 


Ex.  127. 


tefe^ii 


2=3Cg: 


w 


3P=j: 


— «2 


^ 


In  bar  1,  is  exhibited  a  modulation  from  C  to  A  minor  by  the^r.sf  inversion. 
Here  we  have  introduced  the  dissonance  of  the  6th,  ll  but  (in  consequence  of  the 
inversion)  it  requires  to  be  figured  with  a  4,  and  thus  the  chord  would  require  to 
be  figured  s?  quite  a  new  chord  to  all  appearance;  however,  this  ambiguity  is  pre- 
vented by  the  mode  alluded  to. 

At  2,  we  have  the  second  inversion  of  the  dominant  chord,  in  which  we  have 
introduced  the  dissonance  of  the  4th,  which  (in  consequence  of  the  inversion)  is 
figured  7,  thus  h  another  apparently  new  chord  would  be  presented,  but  avoided, 
as  in  the  example. 

•  See  page  87,  below.  t  See  inversions,  Part  IV.  t  Intervals  of  the  fvnidaniental  basa 
§  The  chord  of  the  fundamental  9th  excepted,  which  shall  be  explained  in  its  proper  place. 
H  Q.    Why?    A.   Because  the  fundamental  bass  ascends  a  3rd. 


120 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 


At  8,  4,  the  dissonance  is  in  the  bass,  and  therefore  its  resohition  only  requires 
to  be  figured.  Some  composers  do  not  express  tliis  chord  by  lines,  but  figure  the 
dissonances  from  the  bass  i,  I*  ^     Both  methods  are  here  exhibited. 

At  5,  we  have  the  same  modulation  and  dissonance  as  at  1 ;  here,  however, 
tlie  dissonance  is  found  in  the  bass.  This  chord  would  require  to  be  figured 
tluis,   3 .   another  new  figuring  which  is  avoided  as  in  the  example. 

What  has  been  said  as  regards  the  method  of  figuring  the  above  dissonances, 
wluMi  inverted,  may  be  applied  to  all  the  other  dissonances  when  inverted. 

With  these  few  observations,  we  now  i)resent  the  pupil  with  the  following 
exercise,  in  which  he  will  find  much  useful  matter  and  practical  information.  Let 
him  make  it  a  matter  of  study,  and  tlien  play  it:  above  all,  letliim  examine  most 
niinutehj  each  ■progression  of  the  fundamental  bass,  for  by  it  the  whole  mass  of 
harmony  is  guided  and  directed.  Let  him  remember  that  it  is  by  this  means,  and 
this  alone,  that  he  can  clearly  understand  the  matter  contained  in  this  and  all 
preceding  exercises,  and  thus  be  enabled  hereafter  to  put  into  practice  that 
knowledge  which  he  has  already  acquired,  and  which,  perhaps,  will  at  a  future 
time  be  to  him  an  inexhaustible  source  of  enjoyment,  gratification,  and  delight. 

Very  few  of  the  inverted  basses  are  figured;  this  the  pupil  (we  believe)  will  be 
able  to  accomplish  himself,  from  the  previous  information  afforded  upon  the  sub- 
ject, especially  as  the  fundamental  basses  are  figured  throughout. 

Exercise  on  Modulation,  Dissonances,  and  Cadences. 


Ex.  128. 


The  letters  refer  to  cadences, 
t  See  Ex.  120,  bars  2,  5. 


A.  See  Ex.  125,  a. 
*  See  Ex.  12",  5, 


G.  See  Ex.  125,  ff. 
t  See  Ex.  127,  2. 


HARMONY   AXD   COMPOSITION. 


121 


13- 


14. 


15- 


16. 


f^^^^^^: 


17- 


-hgj- 


a^t: 


1^ 


n^.- 


3^ 


l?c^- 


4-^T-1 


34=:  t^ 


n^t 


E. 


^^ 


-:ir-^: 


^~7=t ^ 


^ 


D. 


b'S: 


-fe^- 


19. 


SI ^ 


:£^ 


.-.i?, 


5=P 


:^= 


^ J-~ 


=  '"b2     =   ^?        =: 


1: 


;^^=±=^ 


23.  24.  25. 


26. 


-f>^ 


D.  See  Ex.  125,  e.  E.  See  Ex.  125,/.  C.  Ex.  125,  d. 

X  See  Ex.  127,  2.  *  See  Ex.  127. 1. 


F.  Ex.  125,/. 


122 


HARMONY   AND  COMPOSITION 


B.  Ex.  138,  b. 


*  Ex.  140,  3. 


EXTENDED   HARMONY. 


It  will  have  been  observed  that  hitherto  our  harmonies  have  been  written  so 
that  between  the  soprano,  alto,  and  tenor,  no  space  was  left  for  the  introduction 
of  any  other  part. 

A  harmony  thus  constructed  we  shall  call 

Compressed  Harmony. 


Ex.  129. 


If  we  examine  the  three  positions  of  the  common  chord  (at  I),  we  find  that  in 
the  second  position  of  the  chord  (a),  the  3rd  is  placed  immediately  under  the  5th; 
in  the  third  position  (b),  the  5th  is  immediately  under  the  octave;  in  the  first  posi- 
tion (c),  the  octave  is  immediately  under  the  3rd.  If,  however,  we  remove  the  3rd 
from  the  chord  at  (a),  and  place  it  an  octave  lower  (as  at  d,  II),  we  shall  find  that 
the  alto  (at  a)  has  changed  place  with  the  tenor  (at  d);  —  that  is,  the  note  which 
was  the  tenor  (at  a)  occupies  a  place  next  the  soprano  (at  d).  If  we  remove  the 
5th  of  the  chord  (at  b),  and  write  it  an  octave  lower  (as  at  e),  a  similar  change 
takes  place;  and  so  with  the  octave  (at  c  and/). 

This  new  arrangement  of  the  intervals  of  the  chord  we  shall  call 


Extended  Harmony. 

By  which  a  new  and  striking  effect  is  produced, 
mony  at  I  and  II. 


Compare  the  following  har- 


Ex.  130. 


In  the  preceding  example  (at  I)  is  exhibited  compressed  harmony,  as  usual, 
which  at  II)  appears  extended;  the  original  alto  (at  I,  a)  is  transferred  an  octave 
lower  to  the  tenor  (at  II,  b);  and  the  original  tenor  (c)  simply  becomes  the 
alto  (at  d). 

(123i 


124 


HARMONY   AND    COMPOSITION. 


The  efEect  produced  by  the  new  distribution  of  the  two  parts  will  be  better 
understood  by  playing  the  alto  and  tenor  together  without  the  other  parts,  first  as 
at  I,  and  then  as  at  II;  but  that  the  pupil  may  still  more  clearly  comprehend  the 
nature  of  extended  harmony,  let  him  harmonize  the  following  exercise  (143,  III)  in 
rompressed  harmoni/,  and  play  it,  —  then  play  it  in  extended  harmony  as  it  now 
stands,  and  compare  the  diilerent  effects:  this  is  the  only  legitimate  way  of  form- 
ing a  correct  judgment,  and  it  cannot  be  too  carefully  studied.* 


III.— Melodyharmonized  with  E.\tended  Harmony. 


Ex.  131. 


N.B.  As  the  alto,  when  transposed  thus  an  octave  lower,  is  rather  too  low 
to  be  written  in  the  treble  clef,  it  will  be  more  convenient  (in  order  to  avoid  ledger 
lines)  to  write  that  part,  at  least  for  the  present,  in  the  bass  clef,  as  in  the 
example,  t 

We  shall  now  suppose  the  pupil  engaged  in  harmonizing  a  melody  in  com- 
pressed harmony,  which  he  intends  shall  subsequently  be  changed  into  extended 
harmony ;  in  this  case,  the  two  following  rules  must  be  carefully  attended  to. 

First,  "  The  bass  part  must  not  approach  the  Alto  nearer  than  an  Octave,'' 

otherwise,  the  alto,  when  transposed  into  the  tenor  (an  octave  lower),  will  be 
found  Iteloii)  the  bass  ;  and  thus  the  tenor  will  in  fact  become  the  f>a.ss.  This  is 
clearly  shown  in  the  following  example,  where  the  bass  (in  the  compressed  har- 
mony at  «)  is  nearer  than  an  octave  to  the  alto;  in  consequence  of  which,  the 
tenor  (at  a)  is  found  below  the  bass  (at  b),  and  the  harmony,  as  far  as  regards  its 
inversion,  changed. 


Ex.  131. 


*  A  melody  harmonized  with  extended  harmony  may  be  played  by  two  performers  on  on« 
pianoforte,  produeing  the  effect  of  a  quartet. 

t  It  may  l)e  liere  noticed  that  almost  all  our  modern  arrangements  for  soprano,  alto,  tenor, 
and  bass,  are  confined  to  the  two  clefs,  soprano  aud  bass. 


HARMONY  AXD   COMPOSITION. 


125 


By  this  interchanging  of  parts,  it  is  evident  that  a  4th  must  become  a  5th; 
therefore  in  the  compressed  harmony  observe  this 

Second  Rule,  "  Consecutive  4ths  inust  be  avoided;" 

for,  when  the  harmony  is  afterwards  extended,  these  consecutive  4ths  will  become 
consecutive  oths,  which  are  not  allowed. 

For  example:  —  at  c  (compressed  harmony),  are  consecutive  4ths,  which,  at  d 
(extended  harmony),  become  5ths. 

The  improper  progression  (in  the  present  instance)  arises  from  having  selected 
the  third  inversion  of  the  fundamental  7th  as  the  bass.  By  employing  the  second 
inversion  (^s  at  e),  this  faulty  progression  is  avoided  (as  at/). 

If  the  pupil  carefully  attends  to  these  two  rules,  he  may,  without  the  least 
apprehension  of  making  mistakes,  re- harmonize  his  former  exercises  with 
extended  harmonies,  and  thus  produce  new  and  unexpected  effects. 

Several  other  advantages  result  to  us  from  this  extension.  For  example  :  when 
a  melody  ascends  or  descends  by  great  intervals  (as  in  the  following  example  at  a), 
the  skipping  of  the  chords,  which  naturally  arises  from  compressed  harmony,  is 
not  only  avoided  by  a  partial  extension  (as  at  b),  in  the  following  example,  but  a 
smooth  and  flowing  progression  of  the  inner  parts  is  obtained ;  tlie  superior  effect 
of  which,  when  contrasted  with  that  at  (a),  needs  scarcely  to  be  noticed. 


I      /'. 


Ex.  132. 


tS: 


J       J. 


=?= 


When  the  melody  falls  by  a  great  interval  (as  at  a,  in  the  following  example), 
the  alto,  in  order  to  obtain  a  smooth  progression,  is  permitted,  but  sparingly,  to 
cross  over  the  soprano  (as  at  b). 


P 


m 


^^ 


^ 


Ex.  133. 


$ 


W- 


3E 


3^ 


^^^ 


w 


--=r^=f^ 


-t= 


^ 


^ 


This  will  suffice  to  show  the  nature  of  extended  harmony,  and  its  application; 
and  whether  we  employ  it  to  prevent  skipping,  or  for  the  purpose  of  interchang- 
ing the  parts  (as  exhibited  in  example  130),  it  will  be  found  a  most  important  aux- 
iliary. The  best  advice  that  can  be  given  tlie  student,  in  order  to  make  himself 
fully  and  practically  acquainted  with  the  extraordinary  divei'sity  of  effect  thug 
produced,  is  to  re-harmonize  his  former  productions  with  extended  harmonies,  and 


126 


HARMONY   AND   COMPOSITION. 


then  to  play  them,  A  few  modulations  written  by  him  thus  (as  in  the  following 
example  at  I),  and  played,  will  be  found  exceedinjjly  useful;  particularly  so,  if 
they  are  lirst  written  and  played  in  compressed  harmony.  This  extended  har- 
mony may  be  diversified,  as  at  II.* 


I.— Modulation  with  Extended  Harmony.  >    ■    i    i      i    ■ 


^ _| — I 1 — I-  -4. 


Ex.  134. 


rrrrrrrrrrr 


^ 


1 — \-'Sdal0'»»* 


^ 


UJJJ.JJJJ. 


^E^^^^ijj^^^ 


II.— Diversification,  to  be  continued  by  the  Pupil. 


'■rrrr  rrrr-fffrrr 


'^i»-»-|t^EX^. 


m^^ 


III) 


.^^n,L^'L.n^-_p/_r^ 


m 


;&c 


MAJOR   AND   MINOR. 

It  has  already  been  stated  that  a  major  key  stands  closely  allied  to  another 
called  its  ^^  relative  minor'''' ;]  and  that  it  is  by  the  3rd  of  a  chord  we  discover 
whether  it  is  major  or  minor.  \ 

If  we  carefully  examine  example  Go,  we  shall  find  that  the  harmonics  there 
exhibited,  as  they  arise  from  the  vibration  of  a  string,  do  not  produce  a  minor  but 
a  major  chord. § 

We  shall  now  proceed  to  explain 


THE   MINOR   SCALE. 

Its  Orujin,  Construction,  and  Harmonies. 

This  will  be  found  a  most  interesting  subject,  inasmuch  as  it  opens  to  our 
view  a  new  and  unbounded  field  of  harmony.  It  is  true  the  student  is  not  alto- 
gether unacquainted  with  the  nature  of  minor  chords  as  regards  modulation;  but 
it  is  only  when  major  and  minor  chords  are  employed  conjointly  in  harmonizing 
melodies  that  their  effect  can  be  fully  appreciated. 

The  major  scale  is  derived  from  nature,  as  already  shown:  but  the  minor  scale 
is  partly  artificial;  it  is  evident  that  a  union  of  these  two  scales  must  produce  an 
effect  altogether  different  from  that  which  has  hitherto  preceded ;  and  of  which 
the  pupil  is  not  at  present  capable  of  forming  an  adequate  conception. 

The  minor  scale,  then,  as  already  said,  is  artificial;  but,  in  explaining  its  con- 
struction, we  shall  as  much  as  i)ossible  keep  in  view,  and  take  for  our  model,  the 
major  (or  original)  scale  as  produced  by  nature. 

If  we  examine  the  scale  of  three  sounds  in  exami)le  (30,  we  find  that  the  8rd  or 
last  soimd  is  the  same  as  the  3rd  of  the  chord  of  its  generator  (as  appears  also  in 
the  following  example  at  a). 


*  See  also  Ex.  :!;i  and  47. 
t  Ex.  44. 


t  Page  58,  Ex.  46. 
§  See  page  61,  62. 


HARMONY   AND   COMPOSITION. 


127 


As  the  tonic  chord*  has  a  major  3rd,  and  as  the  third  sound  of  that  scale  is  a 
repetition  of  the  3rd  of  the  tonic  chord,  the  scale  is  major. 


Ex.  135- 


^i=; 


^j-w-"^ 


-g:^ 


•;i~i»~*" 


m 


1 


Should  we  give  the  tonic  chord  a  minor  3rd  (as  at  6),  then  the  scale,  according 
to  the  above  principle,  will  be  a  minor  scale;  for  the  third  sound  in  that  scale  is  a 
repetition  of  the  3rd  of  the  tonic  chord. 

"Minor  Scale  of  Six  Sounds.'" 

In  constructing  this  scale,  we  shall  i>ursue  the  same  principle  as  that  by  which 
we  were  enabled  to  construct  the  major  scale,  t 

The  following  example  (at  I)  exhibits  the  major  scale  as  we  first  discovered  it, 
and  in  which  all  the  chords  are  major;  but  at  II,  the  chords  are  all  minor,  the 
effect  of  which  (when  compared  with  the  original  scale  at  I)  is  very  far  from 
being  satisfactory. 


Ex.  136. 


P 


g 


IL 


Major. 


Minor. 


Let  us  try  whether  we  can  modify  this  scale  so  that,  while  we  retain  the 
impression  of  the  minor  key,  we  shall  still  in  some  measure  keep  in  view  the  prin- 
ciples by  which  the  minor  scale  was  established.  In  order  to  effect  this  object,  it 
will  be  necessary  that  we  change  oxe  of  the  minor  chords,  at  II,  into  major;  but, 
as  the^r.s^  and  third  chords  must  be  minor,  it  is  clear  that  the  second  chord  only 
can  be  made  jho/o?-,  see  («)  in  the  following  example;  that  the  second  chord  is  the 
one  which  ought  to  be  major  is  evident  also  from  its  being  the  dominant  proceed 
mg  to  its  tonic,  and  necessary  to  establish  the  key. 


Ex.  137. 


Having  arranged  the  harmony  of  the  first  scale  of  three  sounds  according  to 
this  i)rinciple  (as  at  a),  the  second  scale  must  be  arranged  exactly  in  the  same 
manner  (as  at  h).  Thus,  by  a  union  of  two  scales  (at  a  and  h)  a  scale  of  .s/.r  sounds 
with  its  proper  harmonies  is  produced. 


The  first  chord  of  a  scale  we  shall  call  the  tonic  chord. 


t  See  page  62. 


128 


HARMONY   AND   COMPOSITION. 


Here,  however,  we  find  that  a  modulation  to  D  minor  has  taken  place;  and,  as 
we  modulated  to  that  key  by  its  dominant  A,  so  we  must  modulate  back  to  the 
orio'inal  key  of  A-minor  by  its  dominant  E,  and  we  are  furnished  with  the  two 
last  intervals  of  the  scale  of  A-minor,  viz. :  G-sharp  to  A,*  at  the  same  time, 
clearly  showing  the  reason  why  from  the  Oth  to  the  7th  of  a  minor  scale  must  be  a 
tone  and  a  half.  Thus,  then,  we  have  a  complete  scale,  artificial  in  its  constructioL. 
—  inasmuch  as  it  is  composed  of  major  and  minor  chords. 


Ex.  1 38. 


If  we  examine  the  preceding  minor  scale,  we  find  that  the  second,  fifth,  and 
seventh,  are  accompanied  with  ^naj or  chords  —  characteristic  of  the  major  scale; 
and,  as  the  basses  of  these  chords  are  dominants,  the  fundamental  7ths  are  added,  t 

If  it  should  be  asked,  Wliy  is  the  fundamental  7th  not  added  to  the  third  chord 
(k),  that  bass  being  dominant  to  U?  We  answer,  it  is  true  A  is  dominant  to  D,  but 
because  the  3rd  is  mJ?ior  it  is  not  a  dominant  chord  (.for  every  dominant  chord 
requires  a  major  3rd),  and  consequently  the  fundamental  7th  cannot  be  added.  Not 
so  at  (x),  for  there  the  chord  is  major,  and  the  7th  may  be  added. 

If  we  further  examine  this  minor  scale,  we  find  that  the  distance  between  the  2nd 
and  3rd,  5th  and  6th,  7th  and  8th,  are  semitones,  and  between  the  6th  and  7th  a  tone 
and  a  half.  These  are  all  distinguishing  characteristics  of  the  minor  scale;  hut 
especially  the  progression  between  the  iSth  and  1th;  the  wailing  and  melancholy 
effect  thus  produced  is  peculiarly  suited  to  express  deep  sorrow  and  grief.  The 
6th  of  this  scale  is  sometimes  raised  a  semitone,  to  avoid  this  progression  of  three 
half-tones;  but  is  it  not  thus  deprived  of  one  of  its  most  essentially  characteristic 
beauties  ?  and  is  not  also  the  preponderance  of  minor  chords  weakened,  by  one 
more  than  necessary  being  made  major  ? 

Having  now  explained  the  minor  scale  on  fundamental  principles,  we  shall  take 
that  scale  and  its  harmony  (as  it  appears  in  the  last  example)  for  our  guide,  and 
harmonize  a  melody  according  to  its  principles;  preparatory  to  which,  it  is  only 
necessary  to  state  that  the  rules  are  (with  very  few  exceptions)  the  .same  as  already 
taught  in  the  preceding  part  of  the  work;  that  is  to  say,  tlic  four  rules  of  harmo- 
nizing, f  the  adding  of  dissonances,  etc.,  etc.,  are  all  applicable  here;  the  only 
additional  rules  refer  to  those  parts  of  the  scale  which  require  major  chords  — 
as  follow: 

"  Tiie  second  and  seventh  of  the  scale  must  always  be  accompanied  with  major 
chords.''^ 

"  The  fifth  of  the  scale  may  be  accompanied  with  either  major  or  minor." 


The  pupil  is  strongly  advisM  to  read  very  carefully  what  has  been  stated  upon  that  subject 
at  page  63. 

t  See  page  42. 

?  See  page  31, 44, 47,  50.  We  are  desirous  to  draw  the  attention  of  the  student  iz  these  four 
rules  of  harmonizing,  in  order  that  he  may  see  their  applicability  to  the  harmonizing  of  miuot 
melodies. 


HARMONY   AND   COMPOSITION. 


129 


With  respect  to  the  accompaniment  of  the  5th,  some  judgment  and  caution  are 
necessary;  because,  as  the  fifth  of  the  scale  and  the  fifth  of  the  tonic  (or  key  chord) 
are  the  same  intervals,  a  mistake  in  the  selection  of  the  harmony  of  that  interval, 
with  reference  to  major  or  minor,  might  easily  be  committed;  however,  by  a  little 
reflection  and  practice,  this  may  hereafter  be  effectually  avoided.  For  further 
explanation  the  pupil  is  referred  to  example  lol. 

It  must  not  be  expected  that  minute  directions  will  be  given  how  the  pupil 
should  proceed  on  all  occasions;  that  would  indeed  be  impossible;  he  must  put 
into  jiractice  the  knowledge  he  has  acquired,  and  exercise  his  own  ingenuity;  if  he 
does  so,  and  carefully  examines  the  exercises  with  which  he  will  be  furnished  as 
he  proceeds,  it  will  be  a  wonder  if  he  misses  his  way. 

The  following  is  an  illustration  of  what  has  been  stated,  and  we  will  analyze  it. 


A  Minor  Melody  harmonized  with  Extended  and  Compressed  Harmony. 

3-  4-  5-  0.  7- 


Ex.  139. 


The  exercise  commences  with  tlie  5th  of  the  scale,  which  must  have  a  minor  chord ;  wliy  it 
WM^^  be  thus  accompanied  requires  no  explanation.  N.B.  As  the  5th  is  here  repeated,  we  have 
employed  the  fourth  rule  of  harmonizing.*  —  At  2.  the  second  rule  has  been.introduced.t  because 
the  fourth  of  the  scale  descends  one  degree.  Bars  3.  7.  15,  cadences,  t  At  4.  dissonance  of  the  9. 
At  5,  the  octave  being  repeated,  the  third  rule  is  employed  §.  At  G,  the  fifth  accompanied  by  a 
minor  chord.  Why  ?  Because  the  second  part  of  the  minim  is  accompanied  by  the  fourth  rule, 
which  re(iuires  a  major  chord ;  had  the  5th  been  accompanied  by  a  major  chord,  then  two  major 
chords  would  have  followed  each  other  in  immediate  succession,  which  for  the  present  should  be 
avoided. 

At  9,  a  7th  by  license  is  introduced  in  compressed  harmony ;  at  10,  the  harmony  is  extended, 
to  prevent  skipping,  n  By  the  introduction  of  this  licensed  7th,  the  harmony  of  the  succeeding 
chord  is  of  course  deprived  of  its  5th ;  which,  however,  if.  amply  compensated  by  the  effect 
produced  by  the  7th.  Compare  the  effect  produced  at  bar  5  in  extended  harmony  with  13  in 
coTnpressed. 

The  attention  of  the  student  is  particulary  directed  (at  10)  to  the  progression  from  F  to 
G-sharp;  the  peculiar  effect  this  progression  produces  has  already  been  alluded  to  m  page 
128,  Ex.  138. 


♦  See  page  50.  t  Page  44.  x  See  cadences,  page  117-118. 

II  Ex.  132. 


§  Page  47. 


130 


HARMONY   AND   COMPOSITION. 


It  has  been  generally  remarked,  and  with  great  truth,  that  one  example  often 
effects  more  towards  elucidating  a  subject  than  pages  of  explanation;  we  shall, 
therefore,  give  a  few  specimens,  showing  how  certain  portions  of  the  preceding 
melody  may  be  variously  harmonized;  more  especially  with  regard  to  the  accom- 
paniment of  the  fifth  of  the  scale,  as  exhibited  in  the  following  example. 


17- 


i8. 


19. 


Ex.  140. 


r- 


m 


-j=^ 


20. 


=>:=t=i 


p^E^^E^E^jEE^ipEE*^ 


:dEJ^^EJE||E^EddEE^g^EJs^E^E|i^jy^^fe^ 


r 


i=i: 


5= 


OLJ: 


J  .     J.    :i    J    J 


-^ — * — • — r» — 1» — -iS; m 

k=i=-F^^fP^^^ — ffl 


S 


=?2: 


5    «i 


Bar  17.  The  fifth  of  the  scale  accompanied  by  a  major  chord.  Compare  this  harmony  with 
bare. 

Bar  18.  The  fifth,  accompanied^rsMjy  a  ?«i?ior,  and  then  by  a  major  chord.  Compare  as 
above. 

Bar  20.  In  order  to  preserve  a  flowing  melody  in  the  bass,  the  7th  in  the  tenor  is  permitted 
to  ascend.  This  liberty,  however,  must  lie  used  sparingly.  Compare  the  progression  of  the  bass 
at  19  and  20  with  that  of  the  alto,  21,  22. 

These  specimens  also  exhibit  several  modes  of  extending  the  harmony.  It  will  be  observed 
that,  in  bars  22,  23,25,  it  is  extended  beyond  the  limits  pointed  out  in  Ex.  130;  nevertheless,  it  may 
be  employed  thus  with  very  great  effect.  Compare  these  specimens  from  bars  19  to  20  with 
bars  9, 10,  ii. 

To  enter  into  a  full  explanation  of  these  various  specimens  would  only  tend 
to  frustrate  our  design,  which  is,  that  the  student  should  examine  and  judge  for 
himself,  and  become  practically  acquainted  with  that,  which  no  specific  rules  can 
ever  convey:  —  viz.,  general  effect. 

Let  it  be  observed,  that  no  neiv  rules  have  here  been  introduced;  all  has  been 
effected  by  the  simple  application  of  the  '•''four  rules  of  harmonizing,"  with  which 
the  student  was  before  familiar. 

We  shall  now  proceed  to  introduce  a  most  important  chord  in  harmony  :  viz. 

THE   CHORD   OF   THE   MINOR   NINTH. 

It  will  be  in  the  recollection  of  the  student,  that,  when  we  explained  the  reso- 
lution of  the  chord  of  the  fundamental  7th,*  we  were  particularly  anxious  to 
draw  his  attention  to  two  intervals  of  that  chord  :  viz.,  the  8rd  and  7th;  the  former 
of  which  ascended  a  semitone  direct  to  the  octave  of  the  tonic,  while  the  latter 
descended  a  semitone  to  the  3rd  of  the  succeeding  chord.  It  is  a  fact  worthy  of 
notice,  that  when  these  two  intervals  are  heard  together,  in  the  situation  repre- 


*  See  page  39,  also  52. 


HARMONY  AND   COMPOSITION. 


131 


sented  at  (a)  in  the  following  example,  an  immediate  and  powerful  tendency  to 
attract  each  other  is  manifested  between  them.t 


Ex.  141. 


When  these  tivo  intervals,  however,  are  placed  in  a  reversed  position  (as  at  b), 
then  how  opposite  the  effect !  no  sympathy  is  manifested  between  them ;  no  desire 
to  approach  each  other;  indeed  a  contrary  feeling  is  exhibited:  —  a  desire  to 
sejjarate;  to  fly  off  in  opposite  directions. 

It  is  by  these  tivo  intervals,  ascending  and  descending  by  semitones,  that  the 
whole  mass  of  harmony  is  guided  and  directed. t 

Now  let  the  student  mark  well  —  when  the  Ith  descends  a  semitone,  the  chord 
into  which  it  descends  will  be  a  major  chord  (a,  b);  but  when  the  7th  descends  a 
whole  tone,  the  chord  into  which  it  descends  will  be  a  minor  chord  (c,  d). 

In  this  latter  case  it  is  evident,  that,  in  consequence  of  the  7th  descending  a 
whole  tone,  the  equilibrium  which  subsisted,  as  it  were,  between  these  two  parts 
before,  is  now  destroyed ;  and,  in  order  to  restore  it,  some  other  interval  must  be 
found,  by  which  this  object  shall  be  accomplished;  in  other  words,  an  interval  must 
be  added  to  the  chord  of  the  fundamental  7th,  which  (while  the  ord  ascends  a  semi- 
tone) shall  descend  a  semitone;  and  as  the  7th  in  the  first  instance  indicated  the 
approach  of  a  major  chord,  so  the  interval  sought  for  shall  be  calculated  to  indi- 
cate the  approach  of  a  minor  chord. 

Here  the  question  arises, —  ?o// ere,  and  hoio,  shall  we  find  this  interval"?  —  We 
answer, — by  applying  once  more  to  that  inexhaustible  fountain  from  which  we 
have  obtained  all  our  previous  knowledge. 

In  examining  example  48,  we  find  that  the  harmonics  of  the  generator  produce 
not  only  a  common  chord,!  the  chord  of  the  fundamental  7th,  and  a  scale  with  its 
fundamentalbasses;  — but  the  chord  of  the  fimdamental  9th  also;  and  this  9th, 
let  it  be  well  observed,  is  a  major  9th.  See  the  following  example  140  (a). 
The  student  is  requested  to  pay  particular  attention  to  what  follows. 
That  nature  furnishes  a  major  chord,  and  that  a  major  chord  may  be  changed 
into  a  minor  by  lowering  its  ;5rd  a  half  tone,  has  already  been  shown :  *  now  the 
(referring  to  the  following  example)  let  us  proceed  upon  the  same  principle  with 
9th;  and,  as  we  have  lowered  the  thikd  of  the  common  chord  a  semitone,  and 
made  it  a  minor,  let  us  lower  the  ninth  a  semitone  and  make  it  likewise  minor  ib); 
it  will  then  descend  a  semitone  upon  the  5th  of  the  tonic  (c),  while  the  3rd  ascends 
a  semitone  to  the  octave,  and  thus  the  equilibrium  of  these  two  intervals  in  their 
progression  is  preserved. 

The  whole  of  the  chord  of  the  minor  9th  is  exhibited  at  {d.)  It  will  be  observed, 
that  at  (rt)  the  major  9th  descends  into  the  5th,  a  whole  tone,  while  the  7th  descends 
but  a  half  tone,  producing  a  major  chord;  hnt  that  at  (d),  while  the  minor  9th 
descends  a  half  tone  into  the  5th,  the  7th  descends  a  whole  tone  into  the  3rd,  pro- 
ducing thus  a  minor  chord. 

*  The  truth  of  this  observation  will  be  attested  by  every  intelligent  vocalist  and  performer 
on  wind  and  string  instruments  (not  tlie  pianoforte). 

^   A.  major  chord  (let  it  be  remembered),  not  a  minor. 
X  Page  56-57. 


1S2 


HARMONY   AND   COMPOSITION. 


I. 
Ex.  142. 


Having  fully  explained  the  nature  of  the  minor  9th,  and  from  whence  it  is 
derived,  and  having  shown  the  necessity  of  its  introduction,  we  shall  now  proceed 
to  point  out 

"  How  practically  to  incorporate  the  Minor  9th  with  the  Chord  of  the  Fun- 
damental 1th.'''' 

As  the  minor  9th  will  be  found  a  major  semitone  |  above  the  octave,  it  is  only 
necessary  to  remove  the  octave,  and  insert  in  its  place  a  note  a  major  half  tone 
higher,  and  that  note  will  be  the  minor  9th.  As  this  minor  9th  (like  the  fun- 
damental 7th)  requires  no  preparation,^  we  shall  call  it 

The  Fundamental  Minor  9th,  \\ 

which  may  be  introduced  into  any  dominant  chord. 

At  (e)  in  the  following  example,  II,  is  the  chord  of  the  fundamental  7th;  the 
octave  is  marked  to  be  expunged. 

At/.    The  minor  9th  is  inserted  in  its  place. 

At  g.  The  minor  9th  is  resolved,  descending  a  semitone,  into  the  5th  of  the 
following  chord. 

At  h.    The  chord  in  different  positions. 

At  i.  The  9th  is  resolved  on  the  satne  bass  into  the  octave,  like  a  dissonance 
by  suspension. 


As  the  minor  9th  resolves  into  the  5th,  another  dissonance  of  the  6th  presents 
itself,  prepared  by  the  9th;  the  rule  for  which  is: 

"  When  the  fundamental  bass  ascends  a  4th,  the  dissonance  of  the  6th,  pre- 
pared by  the9th,  may  be  introduced.''^ 

See  the  following  example  at  «,•  and,  as  the  same  progression  of  the  fundamental 
bass  admits  of  the  4th  prepared  by  the  7th,ir  these  two  dissonances  may  be  com- 
bined, as  at  b. 

t  See  Ex.  48. 

t  A  note,  raised  or  lowered  a  semitone  without  changing  the  name  of  tliat  note,  is  called  a 
minor  semitone.  A  note,  which  changes  its  name  when  thus  raised  or  lowered,  is  called  a  major 
semitone. 

§  Thus  it  may  easily  be  distinguished  from  the  dissonance  of  the  9th  by  siispensioii,  which 
requires  preparation. 

II  Or  chord  of  the  minor  9th ;  the  fundamental  9th ;  or  simply  the  minor  9th ;  by  whicli  the 
whole  chord  is  to  be  understood.  U  See  Ex.  108. 


HARMONT   AND   COMPOSITION. 


133 


Ex.  143. 


Before  we  proceed  to  the  inversion  of  the  fundamental  chord  of  the  minor  9th, 
the  student  is  recommended  to  exercise  himself  on  that  chord,  by  modulating 
through  all  the  relative  minor  keys;  a  specimen  of  which  is  given  in  the  following 
example.  Previous  to  entering  upon  that  exercise,  however,  a  few  preparatory 
questions  like  the  following  will  be  found  useful. 

Q.  How  do  you  discover  the  minor  9th? 

A.  The  minor  9th  is  found  a  major  semitone  above  the  octave. 

Q.  What  is  the  minor  9tli  to  G?  A.    A-flat, 

Q.  "Why  is  it  not  G-sharp?— For  G-sharp  and  A-flat  are  represented  by  the  same  key  on  the 
pianoforte? 

A.  Because  G-sharp  is  not  a  major  semitone  above  G,  but  only  a  minor  semitone:  it  would 
be  a  sharp  octave  to  G. 

Q.  What  is  the  minor  9th  to  B-flat?  A.  C-flat. 

Q.  What G-sharp?  A.   A-natural. 

Q.  Mliat D-sharp?  A.    E-natiu-al. 

Q.  What E-flat?  A.    F-flat. 


Modulation  through  the  Relative  Minor  Keys,  with  the  Minor  Ninth. 


Ex.  144. 


N.B.  A  modulation  (such  as  the  above)  consisting  entirely  of  fundamental 
chords  of  the  minor  9th,  is  not  very  grateful  or  soothing  to  the  ear;  quite  the  c(m- 
trary,  indeed;  but,  when  judiciously  introduced,  these  chords  produce  effects 
quite  electrifying. 

Inversion  of  the  Chord  of  the  Minor  9th. 

As  the  chord  of  the  fundamental  7th  contains  three  intervals  besides  the  bass, 
and  may  therefore  be  inverted  three  times,*  so  the  chord  of  the  fundamental  9th, 
because  it  contains/owr  intervals  besides  the  bass,  may  be  inverted  four  times. 

It  is  necessary  to  observe  that  any  inversion  of  the  fundamental  7th  may  at 
once  be  converted  into  an  inversion  of  the  minor  9th  by  merely  removing  the 
interval  which  represents  the  octave,  and  writing  in  its  place  a  note  a  major  half 
tone  higher;  as  in  the  following  example. 


See  Part  IV,  on  inversions. 


134 


HARMONY   AND   COMPOSITION. 


Ex.  145. 


Chord  of       ("liorrt  of  First 

the  7th.   the  miner  9th.  Inversion. 


Second 
Inversion. 


Third 

Inversion. 

6. 


Fourtn 
Inversion.     Ditto. 


At  1,  tlie  cliord  appears  as  the  chord  of  the  fundamental  Ith,  with  tlie  octave  marked  to  be 
expunged. 

At  2,  the  octave  is  expunged,  and  the  9th,  E-flat,  written  in  its  place;  which  9th  resolves  on 
the  5th  of  the  following  tonic  chord  at  3. 

At  4,  this  chord  appears  in  the  first  inversion.  I),  the  octave  (which  would  here  appear  as 
a 6th),  is  expunged,  and  the  minor  9th  put  in  its  place,  which,  in  const, luence  of  the  inversion, 
requires  to  be  figured  with  a  7.    The  chord  is  called  the  diminished  7th.* 

N.B.    Had  the  minor  9th  not  been  introduced,  it  would  have  been  the  chord  of  the  6 

At  5,  is  exhibited  the  second  inversion,   uf 

N.B.   Had  the  9th  not  been  introduced,  it  would  have  been  the  chord  of  the  7 

At  6,  third  inversion,   **   or  ** 

bs        b- 
N.B.    Without  the  9th,  it  would  have  been  «\- 

At  7, /oitr^/i  inversion.  As  the  9th  itself  is  in  the  inverted  bass,  we  need  only  figure  the 
original  3rd,  thus :  jf  2  (sharp  2nd),  as  at  8. 

Having  now  shown  the  four  inversions  of  the  cliord,  it  will  be  necessary  to 
make  a  few  observations  upon  each  of  them. 

Observation  I. 

As  the  essential  intervals  of  the  fundamental  7th  are  the  3rd  and  7th,  1  so 
those  of  the  minor  9th  are  the  3rd  and  9th  ;t  hy  these  two  /rtf^er  intervals  we  are 
always  enabled  clearly  to  distinguish  the  chord  of  the  fundamental  7th  from  that 
of  the  minor  yth  and  its  inversions;  nevertheless,  the  fundamental  7tli  must  not 
be  omitted  when  we  write  that  chord;  for,  the  omission  of  that  interval  would 
deprive  the  following  tonic  chord  of  its  3rd. 

Observation  II. 

The  3rd  and  9th  must  therefore  be  continually  kept  in  view;  and,  under  what- 
ever figures  these  two  intervals  may  be  represented  in  the  various  inversions,  they 
are  at  once  recognized ;  for,  the  3rd  will  always  require  a  mark  of  elevation  (such 
as  a  sharp  or  natural),  and  the  minor  9th  one  of  depression.  In  one  word,  these 
two  intervals  are  always  marked  by  accidentals  of  an  opposite  nature  (which  can 
never  occur  in  an  inversion  of  the  fundamental  7th),  and  therefore  must  always 
be  figured;  the  other  intervals  of  the  chord  need  not  be  figured,  unless  they 
require  accidentals;  for  instance,  in  the  i)receding  example,  at  4  {first  inveision) 
the  original  3rd,  F-sharp,  is  in  the  inverted  bass;  all,  therefore,  that  is  required  is 
to  figure  tlie  9tli,  which  is  here  represented  by  a  flat  7. 

At  5,  second  inversion,  tlie  sharp  6  rei)resents  the  original  3rd,  F-sliarp;  and 
the  flat  5  represents  the  original  9th,  E-flat. 

At  6,  third  inversion,  the  sharp  4  represents  the  original  3rd  (F-sharp)  and  the 
flat,  the  original  9th  (E-flat). 

•  Because  this  7th  is  one  semitone  less  than  the  fundamental  7th.    N.B.  This  chord  has  beei 
most  unaccountably  mistaken  for  a,  fundamental  chord.    See  page  130,  minor  9th,  and  Ex.  141. 
♦  See  Ex.  141,  a,  b.  t  See  Ex.  142,  c. 


HARMONY   AND   COMPOSITION. 


135 


At  f^,  fourth  inversion,  the  sharp  2  represenis  the  original  .3rd,  F-sharp;  and 
the  inyerted  bass  that  of  the  9th,  E-flat. 

We  shall  now  illustrate  what  has  been  said  on  the  preceding  examples,  by 
giving  separate  exercises  on  each  of  the  inversions. 

Exercise  on  the  Chord  of  the  Diminished  Ith. 


Ex.  146. 


III. 


^^S 


:S= 


jP*!  -i^-tqja;^ 


S 


h^  tt^.  V^*  ^ 


^g 


I      j      J         i w  J  I  .1        J 


f=f=f- 


1*     ■  f      TTr    1* — ^1  — 


It  will  be  observed  that,  at  bar  4,  .5,  the  9th,  instead  of  descending  into  the  5th 
of  the  succeeding  tonic,  descends  into  the  octave  of  the  some  bass;  and  thus  the 
chord  of  the  minor  9th  is  changed  into  the  fundamental  7th.*  See  example 
155,  II,  i. 

N.B.    This  exercise,  as  well  as  the  following,  the  student  is  advised  to  play. 

At  II,  the  same  exercise  with  extended  harmony.  The  tenths  between  the 
tenor  and  bass  produce  a  good  effect. 

N.B.  The  tenor  from  2  to  3  has  ascended,  by  which  the  3rd  of  the  chord  is 
doubled,  which  produces  a  good  effect;  especially  in  a  minor  key. 

At  III,  the  same  exercise  diversified,  which  the  pupil  is  required  to  finish  him- 
self, and  then  play. 

N.B.  It  is  necessary  to  observe,  that  an  imperfect  5th  is  always  allowed  to 
precede  or  succeed  a  perfect  5th  in  consecutive  progression;  the  law  is  only  against 
a  consecutive  progression  of  perfect  oths.  Let  this  be  well  kept  in  mind.  The 
consecutive  ."jths  between  the  tenor  and  bass,  therefore,  in  the  above  example  (x) 
are  permitted;  this  may,  however,  be  easily  prevented,  as  at  y  and  2. 


•  Partaking  of  the  character  of  the  9th  by  suspension. 


136 


HARMONY   AND   COMPOSITION. 

Exercise  on  the  Second  Inversion  of  the  Minor  9th. 

Fijnirprl   ♦ original  3rd. 

Digurea  f^^ original  9th. 


Ex.  147. 


In  the  above  example  the  Tith  (B)  in  the  inverted  bass,  bars  1,  2,  instead  of 
descending  as  nsual,  ascends,  to  prevent  the  appearance  of  consecutive  5ths 
between  the  tenor  and  inverted  bass. 


Exercise  on  the  Third  Inversion  of  the  Minor  9th. 

p-         ,  %i original  3rd. 

rigureu  g^ original  9th.       Enharmonic  Changes. 


$"»"  To  be  finished  by  the 
pupil. 

The  only  observation  which  we  sliall  make  upon  the  preceding  exercise  is  tliat, 
at  bar  1,  the  note  B,  the  original  5th  (but  here  the  6th  from  the  inverted  bass), 
instead  of  descending  upon  A,  the  octave,  ascends  in  bar  2,  to  E  the  .3rd  of  the 
bass.*  By  thus  proceeding,  the  3rd  of  the  inverted  bass  is  doubled,  which  pro- 
duces a  very  good  effect.  Let  the  student  write  this  exercise  in  extended  harmony 
and  play  it.  The  commencement  of  it  is  as  follows  at  II;  to  which  the  student 
may  add  such  dissonances  as  he  finds  most  effective. 

Extended  Harmony. 


Exercise  on  the  4th  Inversion  of  the  fundamental  9th,  or  Sharp  Second. 

2Jt  original  3rd. 
Bass  original  9th. 

6.         c. 


Ex.  149. 


•  This  process  may  always  be  adopted  when  the  dominant  chord  is  i  n  the  2nd  position,  and 
the  tliird  inversion  employed. 


HARMONY   AND   COMPOSITION. 


1.J7 


At  a,  the  9th  being  in  the  inverted  bass,  resolves  of  course  upon  the  5th  of  its 
tonic  (h),  and  produces  the  second  inversion  of  that  chord,  (4!).  At  c,  v^e  have  the 
sharp  2  again ;  liere,  hovrever,  the  9th  resolves  into  the  octave.  When  the  chord 
of  the  sharp  2  resolves  into  the  ^th,  it  produces  the  effect  of  the  I  by  iiuspensio7i, 
vphich  is  not  very  satisfactory.  The  following  example  shows  several  modes  of 
avoiding  this. 


I. 
Ex.  150. 


-fa- 


-ft?— r- 


-»=- 


Id. 


^Z 


=^= 


gs 


p 


m 


^ 


:fc5- 


$2 


1 


^g         P>:=?s — n — (S (^ 


S 


m 


-.^- 


:*5= 


-J^ 


=«^ 


::«?== 


^ 


:JI?=: 


:^ 


:t 


it: 


In  the  preceding  exercise  at  h,  the  resolution  of  the  |  is  treated  as  an  unpre- 
paredt  discord  by  suspension.  At  c  nearly  so;  because  the  |  is  not  resolved  upon 
the  same  6a.s.s,  but  is  immediately  followed  by  an  inversion.  At  d,  another 
method. 

We  shall  now  introduce  the  student  to  the 

FIFTH   AND   LAST   RULE   OF   HARMONIZING. 

"  mien  the  6th  of  the  Scale  descends  one  degree,  it  may  be  accompanied  by 
Dominant,  to  which  it  will  be  a  Minor  9<A.§" 

When  the  above  rule  is  employed,  the  .5th  of  the  scale,  whether  preceding  or 
or  succeeding  that  interval,  must  be  accompanied  with  a  minor  chord.     See  a,  b. 


Ex.  151. 


In  like  manner,  should  the  fourth  of  the  scale,  in  descending,  be  accompanied 
by  the  dominant,  then  the  fifth  of  the  scale  immediately  preceding  that  interval 
must  also  have  a  minor  chord,  c. 

When  sevei-al  intervals  of  the  chord  of  the  tonic  immediately  succeed  each 
other  in  a  melody,  they  must  all  be  accompanied  by  minor  chords  (d);  and  it  would, 
therefore,  be  incorrect  to  accompany  the  5th  as  at  e.  || 

t  See  Ex.  145,  bars  7  and  8.  *  See  N.B.,  page  135.  t  See  Ex.  119. 

^  Thi.s  rule  could  not  be  introduced  sooner,  as  it  is  founded  upon  the  chord  of  the  minor  9th. 

H  Seepage  129 — Observation  on  the  acconipaninient  of  the  .5th  in  minor  scale,  and  Ex.  139. 


138 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 


N.B.  When  the  fourth  rule  of  harmonizing  is  employed  (which  we  know  refers  to  the  5th  ol 
the  scale),  that  interval  may  be  changed  into  the  6th,  and  then  accompanied  by  the  fl/th  rule.  For 
example,  the  key  is  A-niiuor,  the  5th  of  the  scale  is  E ;  and,  as  that  5th  is  repeated,  we  have  accom- 
panied it  according  to  the  fotirtli  rulc.t  viz.,  by  the  dominant  (see  Ex.  150.  II,).  At  2,  however, 
we  have  changed  the  5th  (E),  previously  accompanied  by  the  dominant,  into  the  Gth  (F),  and  then 
accompanied  it  according  to  the  fifth  rule.  At  3  and  4  is  exhibited  a  similar  process,  which  is 
preferable  to  the^rs^. 

Let  us  now  harmonize  a  few  melodies  in  the  minor  keys. 

In  order  to  show  the  variety  wliich  may  be  iproduced  in  harmonizing  even  by 
the  chords  of  the  tonic  and  dominant  only,  when  aided  by  the  minor  9th,  the  fol- 
lowing? melody  is  constructed  so  that  no  other  harmony  is  requieed  but  what 
arises  out  of  the  progression  of  these  two  chords  (as  will  be  seen  by  the  funda- 
mental bass),  assisted  by  a  few  dissonances  which  naturally  present  themselves 
in  the  course  of  that  progression. 

Air  harmonized  roith  the  Minor  9th. 
2.  3.  4.  5.  6. 


Ex.  152.  / 


^ 


j_^4^i_ii  j_jj^ 


J 


'B 


:m 


l-t      ,*t    t 


^rf^^^ 


^==iif^^f^^^rw^-fE 


m 


^3E 


m 


m 


:rr{:J       \ 


-fri-  I 


4AA  4 .44 A 


^^^'^^^^m 


5  43     ?    »    »  3 


^ 


^ 


Bars  2, 11,  the  fifth  rule  of  harmonizing  is  introduced.  The  melody  at  7  and  s  in  the  soiirano 
is  imitated  in  the  bass,  at  bars  8  and  9. 

Bars  9  and  10  In  the  alto  are  imitated  in  the  bass,  15, 16. 

Bars  9  and  10  in  the  tenor  are  imitated  in  the  soprano,  15, 16. 

The  dissonances  of  the  4th.  bar  2  (tenor),  combined  with  the  minor  9th  in  the  soprano 
(arising  out  of  the  fifth  rule),  will  be  found  very  effective.  The  gradual  descmding  progression 
of  the  alto  from  the  9tli  to  the  10th  bar,  while  the  tenor  thus  ascends  to  the  itth,  is  very  effective, 
and  produces  two  melodies,  which  are  subsequently  imitated  by  the  soprano  and  bass  (bars  15, 
16).    At  15  is  the  fourth  inversion  of  the  minor  9th. 

t  See  page  50. 

*  In  bars  3-7  we  have  employed  first  the  8th  and  then  the  9th.  by  which  a  more  melodious 
harmony  is  produced  in  the  tenor.  In  Ex.  147,  and  others,  we  permitted  the  minor  9th  to  descend 
an  octave ;  here  this  progression  is  reversed.  At  bar  9,  the  minor  9th  in  the  alto  descends  to  the 
9th,  while  the  8th  in  the  tenor  ascends  to  the  9th.  These  interchanges  amongst  the  parts  never 
fail  of  producing  a  good  effect. 


HARMOXY  AND   COMPOSITION. 

20.  21.  22.  23.  24. 


139 


26. 


Ex.  153. 


This  example  exhibits  tlie  second  part  of  the  preceding  melody,  and  is  so 
constructed  as  to  admit  the  harmony  of  the  subdominant;  which  will  be  found  a 
great  addition  to  the  general  eii'ect. 

In  the  latter  part  of  bar  19,  the  5tli  of  the  scale  is  accompanied  by  a  major 
chord ;  and,  as  it  thus  becomes  a  dominant,  we  are  enabled  to  introduce  the  fun- 
damental 7th  and  minor  9tli. 

Let  this  be  particularly  remembered,  as  much  depends  upon  it;  for,  had  the 
fifth  of  the  scale  at  19  been  accompanied  by  a  minor  chord,  then  all  the  advan- 
tages which  we  have  derived  from  the  7tli  and  9tli  would  have  been  lost:  we 
would  reiterate,  let  this  be  well  kept  in  mind. 

The  remarkably  smooth  and  flowing  progression  observable  throughout  all 
the  parts,  is,  in  a  great  measure,  to  be  attributed  to  the  introduction  of  the 
minor  9th. 

If  the  pupil  examines  and  compares  the  harmony  of  bar  19  with  that  at  23,  he 
will  perhaps   better   comprehend   and   more   fully  appreciate  the   importance  of 
the  rule:  "  The  bth  of  the  Minor  Scale  may  he  accompanied  by  either  a  Major  or 
Minor  Chord.''''     And  no  less  important  is  the  fourth  rule  of  harmonizing,  viz. : 
*'  The  bth,  lohen  repeated,  maxj  be  accompanied  by  the  Dominant.''^ 

Again  we  would  reiterate  —  Compare  the  simple  melody  of  baks  19  and 
23;  then  the  harmony,  and  then  the  rules  by  which  it  has  been  effected. 

CHANGING  MAJOR  MELODIES   INTO  MINOR, 

FOK   THE   PtlRPOSE   OF   HARMONIZING. 

The  themes  which  are  furnished  in  the  former  part  of  this  work  *  may  be 
changed  into  minor  in  the  following  manner:  first,  by  merely  altering  the  signa- 
ture; in  this  case,  the  name  of  the  key  remains  unchanged.  By  way  of  illustration, 
let  us  take  a  theme  written  in  C-maJor;  we  will  change  it  into  C-minor.t  How? 
By  placing  three  flats  as  a  signature,  J  and  then,  by  raising  the  7th  of  the  scale 
(wheresoever  it  may  appear)  a  minor  semitone,  the  theme  will  be  in  a  minor  key. 
In  the  key  of  C  minor,  the  7th  is  B-flat;  we  therefore  place  a  natural  before  it,  to 
raise  it  a  half  tone. 

Secondly,  the  major  key  may  be  changed  into  its  relative  minor  by  merely 
transposing  it  a  minor  3rd  lower;  in  that  case,  the  name  of  the  key  is  changed,  but 
the  sir/nature  remains  unaltered. 

Q.    Suppose  we  were  to  change  theme  No.  2,  page  32,  into  minor,  according  to  the  first 
case,  what  signature  would  be  required? 

A.    Two  flats;  and/,  being  the  7th  of  tlie  scale,  should  be  raised  a  semitone. 


See  page  32,  38,  4!i,  51. 


t  Called  irrelative  minor. 


t  See  page  57. 


140 


HARMONY  AND   COMPOSITION. 


Q.  Suppose  we  change  it  into  minor  according  to  the  second  case,  what  signature  will  It 
require? 

A.  The  signature  will  remain  as  it  now  is ;  but  the  theme  must  be  transposed  a  minor  tliird 
lower,  and  D  be  raised  a  sem,itone,  as  being  the  7th  of  E  minor. 

When  a  theme  has  thus  been  changed  into  minor,  the  five  rules  of  harmonizing  may  bo 
employed. 

In  pianoforte  music,  especially,  the  minor  scale  is  frequently  employed  as  a 
mere^assof/e  of  effect;  in  this  case,  composers  have  agreed  sometimes  to  raise  the 
6th  of  the  scale  a  half  tone  in  ascending  (a);  but,  in  descending,  to  lower  the  6th 
and  7tli  a  half  tone  (as  at  b  in  the  following  example),  some  authors  write  the 
descending  scale  as  at  c,  preserving  thus  the  true  and  genuine  character  of  the 
minor. 

Minor  Scale,  arising  out  of  Passing  Notes. 


Ex.  154. 


This  apparent  anomaly  arises  from  the  scale  on  these  occasions  being  chiefly 
composed  of  passing  nofes,*  of  which,  in  the  present  instance,  the  common  chord 
of  A  minor  is  the  foundation. 

We  shall  here  harmonize  the  minor  scale  descending;  employ  the  minor  9th, 
and  add  such  dissonances  as  may  produce  the  best  effect. 


EX.1S5 


MMi^iM^^^^Miihi^ 


In  the  above  example  we  have  taken  advantage  of  the  5th  rule  of  harmonizing, 
by  accompanying  the  6th  of  the  scale  with  the  dominant,  instead  of  the  siihdomi- 
nant;  and  thus  the  progression  from  the  dominant  to  the  suhdominant  (wliich 
would  have  involved  consecutive  5ths  and  Sths)  is  avoided. 

The  following  example  illustrates,  in  a  practical  form,  and  in  a  regular  and 
uninterrupted  progression,  all  that  has  been  said  on  the  subject  of  the  four  inver- 
sions of  the  chord  of  the  minor  9th;  to  which  are  added  such  of  the  dissonances 
as  are  calculated  to  produce  the  best  effect,  interspersed  with  cadences;  so  that 
the  whole  receives  thus  a  rhythmical  form. 

As  the  fundamental  and  inverted  basses  are  all  figured, t  a  minute  and  par- 
ticular analysis  of  the  exercise  is  not  requisite;  but  the  few  observations  at  the  end 
may  assist  the  pupil. 


*  To  be  explained  hereafter, 
bass  appearing  crowded. 


t  A  separate  staff  has  been  added,  to  prevent  the  figured 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 


141 


Ex,  156. 


-^'-^^-.-^ 


te=i 


m^^^^^^^^^^ 


j-^ 


t.(=^ 


=t:s= 


r^i^S^ 


Andante 
sostenuto.  u 


rinf. 


6 


^3^-^ 


b7_ 


::»= 


Inv.  Bass  figured. 


^="  -<&-  bcT-  "  " 

'  Produceil  by  the  suspension  of  the  5tb  by  tbe;6tb,  prepared  by  the  minor  9tb.  See  fundamental  bass,  also  Ex. '.43. 


142 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 

20.  21.  22, 


SHORT  ANALYSIS. 

Bar  2.  The  3ra  of  the  chord,  C-sliarp,  is  selected  as  the  inverted  bass,  consequently  first 
Inversion  of  the  chord  of  tlie  'Jth  —  diminished  7tli.    See  Ex.  158,  bar  4,  and  Ex.  159. 

Bar  12.  The  5th  has  been  selected— second  inversion, b|.   See  Ex.  145,  bar  5,  and  Ex.  15C. 

Bar  7.    The  7th third  inversion,  j*.     See  Ex.  145,  bar  6,  and  Ex.  148. 

Bar  20.  Th    9th fourth  inversion,  52.    See  Ex,  145,  bar  7,  and  Ex.  150,  d. 

This  will  suffice  to  show  how  the  inversions  of  the  fundamental  9th  may  be  employed  most 
effectively.  We  shall  now  point  out  a  few  of  the  dissonances  which  are  introduced  in  the 
example.    See  fundamental  bass. 

From  bar  4  to  5  bass  ascends  a  fourth,  dissonance  of  4th  in  soprano,  prepared  by  7th. 

5  to  6 second, 5th. 

10  to  11 fourth, 4th  in  bass, 8th. 

11  to  12 fifth, 4th  in  alto,  8th. 

7 fourth, 6th  in  alto, 9th. 

Bars  9, 14, 19,  23,  various  cadences. 

ARRANGEMENT  FOR  PIANO -FORTE. 
Allegro. 24.   ^25.  26. 

'f^ ^-^ 


Ex.  157. 


t  In  order  to  produce  the  proper  effect,  when  playing  this  and  the  following  exercise,  K 
should  be  kept  in  mind,  that  they  both  form  one  exercise,  and  must  be  performed  without 
Interruption. 


HARMONY   AND   COMPOSITION. 


143 


P 


32- 


sf 


33- 


34- 


sf 


35- 


:9=^ 


fez 


"^^ 


m 


s= 


tti=r 


— ^   I         Tg — ^— U 1-}« — »-i J« — •-! 1 1     ^#    #n — ^-^^~■0-^■ 


>':=:^gL  Jai- ¥ 


^»±:±*d*^±* 


J6. 


38- 


39- 


fe^ 


-I  ri  1 1 1 


g 


Ph^'H*^ — *^J=^g-rt?^l*n^'n»^  ,-*^t~f**  1    ^rVT^*--  -r«^f»-r— ^fT"r"f    Tf'TTi*-! 


I    I  I  i    L 


^^•i^— b^iriiiikii* 


-haita^ — _^ 


11* 


,^3 


^ 


b^ 


^^~- 


J/ 


40; ^      ^ ^4?-  ^, 42.^ ^       ^^ 43- 


44. 


45- 


47- 


ft 


wir-^rN,irprN^%i%,    -ra>r%-^^> 


144 


HARMONY   AND  COMPOSITION. 

59.  60. 


The  above  Ex.  maybe  viewed  as  a  continuation  of  the  preceding,  written  for  the  pianoforte; 
the  subject  in  the  bass  at  24  and  25  is  (with  an  i)ceasional  slight  change)  carried  through  the  whole 
exercise.  From  bar  32  to  35  the  subject  appears  for  the  right  hand.  From  bars  36  to  41  the 
subject  is  reversed  in  the  bass. 

As  this  interesting  matter  will  be  resumed  hereafter,  we  shall  for  the  present 
only  impress  upon  the  mind  of  the  pupil  the  necessity  of  studying  what  has  been 
already  said,  with  care  and  attention. 


MODULATION    IN    MELODIES 

BY   THE   INTRODUCTION   OF   ACCIDENTALS.* 


It  will  be  observed  that  all  the  melodies  hitherto  harmonized^  commenced, 
continued,  and  ended  in  thesfn*(e  key;  and  that  all  diversity  of  harmony  (shown 
in  so  great  a  variety  of  examples)  veas  produced  through  the  instrumentality  of  the 
three  fundamental  basses  (tonic,  dominant,  and  subdominant) ;  by  the  employ- 
ment of  the /our  rules  of  harmonizing;  by  inverted  basses,  etc.,  etc. 

It  shall  now  be  shown  how  a  melody,  commencing  in  one  key,  may,  through 
the  means  of  an  accidental,  be  made  to  modulate  into  another. 

This  is  a  subject  of  considerable  importance,  and  calculated  to  open  a  very 
■wide  field  for  our  future  opperationsin  harmony.  In  order  that  the  student  may 
be  enabled  fully  to  enter  into  its  nature  and  spirit,  and  to  understand  the  prin- 
ciples on  which  it  is  established,  he  is  strongly  recommended  carefully  to  re- 
peruse  what  has  been  stated  respecting  the  origin  of  melody  and  harmony,^  and 
scales  of  three  sounds.  |  From  what  has  been  said,  it  is  clear  that  a  scale  consists 
in  reality  of  only  three  sounds,  accompanied  by  tvjo  fundamental  basses  (tonic  and 
dominant  §  ).  The  intervals  of  these  two  chords,  including  the  fundamental 
seventh,  will  be  found  to  comprise,  in  all,  six  sounds ;  thus : 


Ex.  158.  ( 


Now  let  it  be  carefully  observed,  that,  while  we  employ  no  other  intervals  in 
constructing  a  melody  but  such  only  as  are  contained  in  the  above  example;  and 
use  no  other  fundamental  basses  but  the  tonic  and  dominant;  then  the  melody  and 
harmony  will  remain  in  the  same  key;  nor  can  any  departure  out  of  that  key  take 
place. 

The  followiny  melody  is  constructed  on  this  Principle,  and  continues 
therefore  in  the  Original  Key. 


Ex.  159. 


Tliat  no  accidental  can  be  introduced  in  the  preceding  melody  without  imme- 
diately r;^*(<)(r^/«f/ the  natural  order  of  the  i)rogression,  is  self-evident;  therefore, 
whenever  we  perceive  a  sharp  or  any  other  accidental  placed  before  an  interval  in 

*  Sharps,  flats,  or  naturals.  t  Page  60  to  66.  t  Ex.  50.  etc. 

§  The  subdominant  can  be  considered  at  present  in  no  other  light  than  as  the  tonic  of  another 
scale  of  tliree  soiiniis.    (  See  Ex.  52,  etc.,  etc.) 

(145) 


146 


HAKMONY  AND   COMPOSITION". 


a  melody,  which  does  not  belong  to  that  melody  or  scale,  we  must  conclude  that  a 
sound  has  been  introdui-ed  which  is  foreign  to  the  original  key,  and  with  which, 
consequently,  the  two  fundamental  basses  of  that  key  can  have  no  connection. 
Under  these  circumstances,  it  is  clear  that  another  bass  must  be  found  to  accom- 
pany that  foreign  sound. 

For  example;  let  us  suppose  that  we  are  required  to  harmonize  the  following 
melody,  written  in  the  key  of  C:  — 


Ex.  i6o. 


We  know  that  the  key  of  C  has  neither  sharp  nor  tlat;  but  here  we  meet  with 
an  F-sharp.  Now,  as  this  F-sharp  forms  no  part  of  the  key  of  C,  it  cannot  be 
accompanied  by  either  of  the  fundamental  basses  belonging  to  the  key  of  C;  and 
the  question  is,  how  shall  we  find  that  other  bass  with  which  this  F-sharjj  may  be 
accompanied?  We  reason  thus:  This  F-sharp  belongs  to  the  key  of  G  (to  the 
octave  of  which  it  ascends  by  a  half-tone) ;  we  conclude,  therefore,  that  a  modulation 
to  the  key  of  G  is  contemplated.*  Now,  as  no  modulation  can  be  effected  but 
through  the  instrumentality  oi  the  dominant  of  the  key  to  which  we' modulate  ;t 
and  as  D  is  the  dominant  to  G,  it  follows,  that  D  is  the  only  proper  bass,  wliich, 
on  this  occasion,  can  accompany  the  note  F-sharp;  and  thus  a  modulation  to  the 
key  of  G  is  established. 

N.B.    The  foreign  interval,  introduced  thus,  we  shall  call 


"  A  note  (or  theiiote)  of  modulation.''^ 
In  illustration  of  the  above,  we  give  the  following  example : 
Ex.  i6i. 


Melody. 


Inv.  Bass. 


Fund.  Bass. 


ag^^B 


3-  4- 


5- 


rff^Tf^^r^^^j:4=4 


±=i 


^^m 


^ 


IS 


.Cadence. 


■=i= 


r=^ 


Genera  tor.ii: 


Domt 


^^m 


Generator.^ 


N.B.  The  notes  placed  undor  fundamental  basses  point  out  the  generators  of  the  scales  of 
three  sounds. or  key  in  which  we  are  for  the  time  being;  and  th(;  dominant,  marked  thus  ^,  may 
be  considered  as  the  door  which  leads  to  the  new  key.    See  modulation.  Ex.  51  and  52. 

The  preceding  melody  continues  in  the  original  key  of  C  until  it  arrives  at 
F-sharp  (bar  3).  Here  a  modulation  takes  place  to  the  key  of  G,  by  '^the  note  of 
modulation,^ ^  F-sharp.  This  F-shari)  is  accompanied  by  D.  Why?  Because  it  is 
the  dominant  to  G. 


*  The  key  of  G  is  the  first  which  presents  itself  in  the  circle  of  keys  requiring  a  sharp.  (See 
page  73.) 

t  See  page  64,  Part  III,  on  Modulation,  Ex.  54. 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 


147 


N.B,  After  a  modulation  has  been  thus  effected,  every  succeeding  interval  of 
the  melody  must  be  accompanied  by  the  fundamental  basses  of  the  new  key  (thus 
—  G  is  noiv  the  tonic,  and  D  the  dominant),  until  another  "note  of  modulation" 
presents  itself,  by  which  we  are  directed  to  another  key.* 

Q.    In  what  key  is  the  above  melody  written?  —  A.       In  the  key  of  C. 

Q.    Does  F-sharp  belong  to  that  key?  —  A.       It  does  not. 

Q.    How  does  F-sharp  proceed?  —A.       It  ascends  a  half-tone  to  G. 

Q.  With  what  bass  have  you  accompanied  F  sharp  ?  — A.  With  D;  because  D  is  domi- 
nant to  G. 

Q.  As  the  note  F-sharp  has  ascended  by  a  half-tone  to  G,  you  conclude  that  a  modulation 
to  G  has  been  effected.  Now  suppose  the  key  to  be  G,  and  you  should  meet  with  a  C-sharp,  to 
what  key  would  you  modulate?  —  A.       To  the  key  of  D. 

Q.  With  what  bass  would  you  accompany  the  note  C-sharp?  — A.  With  A;  because  A  is 
dominant  to  D. 

Q.  But  suppose  G-sharp  had  been  a  note  of  modulation?  — A.  Then  I  should  modulate 
to  A,  by  the  dominant  E. 

Q.  Why  is  the  note  A,  bar  4,  accompanied  by  the  bass  D?  — A.  Because  A  is  the  second  of 
the  scale  of  G,  and  requires  to  be  accompanied  by  the  dominant. 

Q.    Is  F-sharp,  bar  5,  a  note  of  modulation?  —  A.        No ;  it  is  the  7th  of  the  scale  of  G. 

This  will  suffice  to  show  the  nature  and  inoperty  of  a  '^^  note  of  modulation,'''' 
and  how  it  is  to  be  treated  when  it  ascends  a  half-tone.i 

We  shall  now  proceed  to  point  out  another  "note  of  modulation,"  the  pro- 
gression of  which  is  diametrically  opposite  to  the  former;  for  it  descends  a  half- 
tone, and  modulates  to  a  key,  to  the  tonic  of  which  the  note  upon  which  it  has 
thus  descended  will  be  a  major  3rd. 

By  this  descending  "  note  of  modulation"  we  are  enabled  to  modulate  back  to 
the  original  key. 

The  following  Melody  modulates  out  of  the  Original  Key,  and  afterwards 

returns  to  it. 


Ex.  162. 

Soprano. 

Alto. 


Tenor.      J 
Bass.       \ 


Inverted  & 
Fund.  Bass. 


; • — I r— M — r — ^ — ,-e-: — ' — r f  T 


Generator.  I 


rr 


ANALYSIS. 

The  first  5  bars  of  the  above  example  are  the  same  as  those  in  the  preceding,  except  the  last 
note,  F-natural;  and,  as  that  note  does  not  belong  to  the  key  of  G,  it  indicates  a  modulation  out  of 
it.  Thin  F-natural  becomes  now  a  "  note  of  modulation ;  "  it  descends  a  half-tone,  on  the  major 
3rd"of  the  following  tonic,  C,  to  the  key  of  which  it  modulates.  As  we  have  now  returned  to  the 
original  key,  it  follows,  as  a  matter  of  course,  that  the  remainder  of  the  melody  must  be  harmo- 
nized according  to  that  key,— C  being  now  again  the  tonic,  and  G  the  dominant. 


♦See  Part  III. 

t  Let  It  be  kept  in  mind  that  the  half-tones  here  spoken  of  (whether  ascending  or  descend 
ing)  are  major  half-tones. 


148 


HARMONY   AND   COMPOSITION. 


There  are  three  things  which  the  pupil  ought  well  to  keep  in  mind: — 1,  that 
there  are  (ii'o  "notes  of  modulation;"  one  of  which  ascends  a  Aa//-tone,  and  the 
other  descends  a  half-tone: — 2,  that  the  former  modulates  to  a  key  which  lies  a 
half-tone  immediately  above  it;  and  that  the  latter  modulates  to  a  key  to  which, 
when  it  has  thus  descended,  it  will  be  a  major  ord:  —  8,  that,  in  the  first  case,  "  the 
note  of  modulation  "  is  a  major  third  to  the  dominant;  in  the  second  case,  "  the 
note  of  modulation  "  is  the  fundamental  1th  to  the  dominant.* 

Having  fully  explained,  and  illustrated  by  examples,  how  modulations  in  a 
melody  may  thus  be  effected  by  the  introduction  of  accidentals,  it  shall  now  be 
shown  how  that  object  may  be  attained  even  without  the  aid  of  these  accidentals. 
No  doubt  these  agents  are  in  most  cases  not  only  the  plainest,  but  also  the 
most  certain  indications  of  modulations  in  melodies;  yet  it  is  certain  that  a 
simple  melody  contains  toithin  itself  not  only  the  germ  of  many  modulations,^  but  of 
melodies  also. 

The  discovery  of  those  intervals  in  a  melody  by  which  we  are  thus  enabled  to 
modulate,  and  their  practical  application  in  harmony,  form  perhaps  the  most 
interesting  subjects  for  intellectual  pursuit  that  can  well  be  imagined.  The 
materials  which  it  supplies  for  the  purposes  of  harmony  are  so  abundant,  so 
rich,  and  so  extensively  applicable,  that  a  melody,  the  most  uninteresting,  the 
most  monotonous  and  unmeaning,  may  be  made  the  means  of  producing  almost 
endless  variety;  not  only  as  it  may  effect  the  harmony  as  a  whole,  but  also  as  it 
respects  the  melodious  progression  of  the  inner  parts  separately. 

We  shall  now  turn  our  attention  to  the  discovery  of  modulating  intervals  not 
indicated  by  accidentals. 

It  has  already  been  shown  that  a  note  which  is  raised  by  an  accidental  and 
ascends  a  /i«//-^o«e,  modulates  to  a  key  which  lies  a  half-tone  above  it;  we  may 
therefore  conclude  that  any  note  which  proceeds  thus,  whether  indicated  or  not 
by  an  accidental,  will  modulate  in  the  same  manner.  From  this  consideration 
arises 

THE   FIRST   RULE 

For  discovering  and  employing,  for  the  jjurpose  of  modulation,  those  intervals  of 
a  melody  which  have  not  accidentals. 

A.  —  "  The  note  which  ascends  a  half-tone  modulates  to  a  key,  the  octave  of  which 

lies  a  half-tone  above  thatjio^e."     A. 

B.  —  "  Or,  it  may  modulate  to  the  relative  minor  of  that  key".     B. 


Ex.163. 


b7 


1-   1=1- 


Modulation  to  F  Major. 


Modulation  to  D  Minor. 


•  It  may  have  been  observed  that,  except  at  the  close  of  an  exercise  wliere  the  cadence  has 
been  introduced,  tlie  subdoniinant  has  not  been  noticed.  A  careful  perusal,  however,  of  what 
bas  been  said  (page  61.  and  examples  foUowinfr)  will  suffice  lo  show  the  reason  why  </ia<  bass, 
as  one  of  the  three  fundamentals,  must  for  the  present  be  left  out  of  view. 

t  See  Part  III,  Modulation,  from  Ex.  .">5  to  W. 


HARMONY  AND   COMPOSITION. 


149 


In  the  first  case,  the  "|note  of  modulation  "  is  a,  major  3rd  to  the  dominant  of  the  new  key.  A. 
In  the  second  case,  the  note  of  modulation  is  a  5th  to  the  dominant  of  the  new  key.    B.* 
It  will  be  observed  that  although  the  "  notes  of  modulation  "  in  Imth  cases,  ascend  by  half- 
tones, yet  how  very  dtfferoU  are  the  results.    In  the  former  cases  (A),  we  modulate  to  a  major 
key;  in  the  latter  (B),  we  modulate  to  a  minor  key. 

To  show  the  variety  which  may  be  produced  by  the  application  of  the  fir.'it 
rule  only,  we  here  present  the  student  with  a  melody  which,  for  monotony ,  can 
scarcely  be  equalled;  written  thus  designedly ,  to  show  the  efficacy  of  the  rule. 

A  Melody  Juirmonized   according  to  the  first  Rule  of  "  Modulating  by  the 
Intervals  of  a  Melody  "  tchich  have  not  Accidentals. 


Ex.  164. 
Soprano. 

Alto. 

Tenor. 
Bass. 


Fig.  Bass. 


wi^^^^^^dM 


-,S-t3B 


^p 


t  I 


'm 


=E=^ 


4     3    if 


giiH 


ANALYSIS. 

This  exercise  commences  in  the  key  of  C,  in  which  it  continues  until  the  2nd  bar,  where  the 
"  note  of  modxdation,"  E,  (marked  thus  *),  ascends  a  half-tone,  and  modulates  to  F  major. 

Bar  3.  E,  the  same  "  note  of  modulation,"  ascends  «,  half-tone;  but,  instead  of  modulating  to 
F  major,  it  modulates  to  the  relative  minor  t  of  that  key — D  minor. 

Bar  4.    Same  "  note  of  modulation  "  modulates  to  F  major.t 

Bar  5.    B-natural C  major.t 

Bar  8.    Ditto  — A  minor.f  " 

Bar  9.    Ditto C  major.t 

Q.    At  bar  2,  you  have  modulated  to  the  key  of  F ;  could  you  have  modulated  to  ary  other? 

A.    I  could  have  modulated  to  D  minor. 

Q.  Suppose  that  you  had  modulated  so  in  bar  3 ;  how  ought  you  to  have  treated  the  note  of 
modulation  in  bar  4  ? 

A.    I  would  have  modulated  to  F  major,  and  then,  in  bar  5,  to  D  minor. 

Q.  At  bar  .5,  you  have  modulated  to  the  key  of  C,  by  the  note  of  modulation,  B-natural ; 
could  you  have  modulated  to  any  other  key? 

A.    Yes ;  to  the  relative  minor. 

Q.  Suppose  that  you  had  modulated,  at  bar  6,  to  A  minor,  instead  of  C  major;  how  would 
you  have  proceeded  afterwards? 

A.  I  W(mld  have  continued  in  A  minor  until  I  had  arrived  at  the  note  of  modulation, 
B-natural,  in  bar  7,  and  there  I  would  have  modulated  to  C  major. 

The  following  example  exhibits  the  same  melody  reharmonized,  showing  how 
this  rule  may  be  differently  employed.  Let  the  student  carefully  examine  and  then 
compare  tlie  effects  of  both,  bar  by  bar;  not  only  as  regards  the  modulations,  but 
also  as  regards  the  inverted  basses  and  inner  parts;  and  let  it  be  remembered,  that 
as  a  change  in  the  inverted  bass  necessarily  brings  about  a  correspondent  change 

*  As  the  rule  naturally  divides  itself  into  two  parts,— to  prevent  confusion  in  the  practical 
application  of  it,  we  have  distinguished  the  one  from  the  other  by  the  letters  A  and  B.  Let  this 
arrangement  be  Jcept  in  miml. 

t  First  rule,  A. 

X  See  chord  of  the  jniuor  9th,  Ex.  134,  on  which  this  rule  is  founded.       §  First  Rule,  B. 


150 


HARMONY   AND   COMPOSITION. 


in  the  other  parts  likewise,  so  neiv  melodies  will  naturally  arise,  which  (as  shall  be 
explained  hereafter)  may  be  themselves  converted  into  principal  melodies,  and 
harmonized  as  such. 


The  same  Melody  harmonized  differently  by  the  same  Eule 
I.  2.  3.  4.  5.  6.        7 


Ex.  165. 
Soprano. 

Alto. 


Tenor.  / 
Bass.    \ 


Fig.  Bass. 


r 


Let  it  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  foundation  upon  which  all  this  variety  rests 
is  modulation  as  produced  by  the  internals  of  a  melody. 

The  student  may  put  this  rule  into  practice  more  extensively,  if  required :  for 
example  — let  him  select  one  of  the  thetnes  given  in  the  early  part  of  this  work,t 
and  harmonize  it  simply  according  to  the  four  rules  of  harmonizing,!  with 
inverted  basses. §  Then  let  him  search  out  all  those  intervals  which  ascend  by 
half-tones:  these  he  may  employ  (if  he  chooses)  as  notes  of  modulation;  but  (let 
it  be  remembered)  he  is  not  obliged  to  do  so;  that  is,  he  is  not  obliged  to  modulate. 
This  must  be  left  entirely  to  his  own  taste  and  judgment. 

SECOND   RULE 

Of  modulating  by  the  intervals  of  a  melody. 

"  The  note  which  descends  a  half-tone  modulates  to  a  key,  to  the  tonic  of  which  the 
note  to  which  it  descends  is  a  major  3rd."     C. 

*'  Or,  to  its  relative  minor  "     D. 


Ex.  166. 


Modulation  to  F  major. 


—  V 

Modulation  to  D  minor. 


In  the  Jirst  case,  the  "note  of  modulation"  will  be  the  fundamental  7th  of  the  dominant 
of  the  nrw  key.  In  the  latter  case,  the  note  of  modulation  will  be  the  minor  9th  II  of  the  dominant 
of  the  new  key. 

*  Let  the  pupil  carefully  examine  and  compare  the  progression  of  the  alto,  tenor,  and  bass 
of  the  present  example  with  the  one  immediately  preceding,  and  mark  well  the  difference, 
t  See  pages  44  to  51.  t  Themes,  pages  46,  49,  51.       §  See  inverted  basses.  Part  IV. 

II  This  rule  is  also  founded  upon  the  chord  of  the  minor  9th.  (See  page  148.)  See  also  the 
f/th  rule  of  modulation  by  intervals  of  a  melody,  page  156. 


HARMONY  AND   COMPOSITION, 


151 


Ex.  167. 

Soprano 

Alto. 


A  Melody  harmonized  according  to  the  Second  Rule  of  modulating  by  the 
Intervals  of  a  Melody. 
I  2.  3-4.  5.  6.       ^       7. 


^_.!^J_J^^^^|_-^^•J.  ^rj 


ANALYSIS. 

The  key  is  C  to  bar  2,  where  the  "  note  of  modulation,"  C,  descends  a  half-tone  to  B,  and 
thus  modulates  to  a  key,  to  the  tonic  of  which  that  B  is  a  major  3rd. 
Q.    What  key  is  that? 
A.    G  major. 

Bar  4.    The  "  note  of  modulation,"  B-flat,  descends  a  haif-tone,  and  modulates  to  the  key  of 
F  major.t 

Bar  5.    Here  the  "  note  of  modulation,"  B-flat,  occurs  again,  and  descends  a  ha^f-tone;  but 
instead  of  modulating  to  F  major,  we  modulate  to  the  relative  minor  (D  minor). 

Bar  5.  Thelastnote,C(noteof  modulation),desce«(te  { ""^fi^^^l^tto  \  G  major.    Second  rule. 

Bare.    Same  note,  C, 

Bar  6.    Note  F, 

Bar  8.     Osharp, ascends 

Bar  9.     C-natural, descends 

Bar  10.    D-sharp, ascends 


Bar  11.   D-natural,- 


-descends  ■ 


E  minor.  Ditto. 

C  major.  Ditto. 

D  minor.  First  rule. 

G  major.  Second  rule. 

E  minor.  First  rule. 

A  minor.  Second  rule. 


After  proceeding  through  several  other  modulations,  this  exercise  concludes  with  a  cadence  in  the 
original  key. 

The  student,  by  way  of  exercise  on  this  rule,  may  here  again  follow  the  directions  given, 
immediately  after  Ex.  165,  page  150. 

Q.  Suppose  that  you  were  in  the  key  of  E-flat,  and  that  the  note  E-flat  descended  a  feay- 
tone;  to  what  keys  are  you  enabled  to  modulate? 

A.    To  B-flat  major,  or  its  relative  minor,  G  minor. 

Q.    By  what  rule? 

A.    By  the  second  rule.    (See  page  150.) 

Q.  But  suppose  that  the  note  D  occurs,  and  ascends  a  halftone;  to  what  keys  can  yon 
modulate? 

A.    To  E-flat,  or  its  relative  minor,  C. 

Q.    By  what  rule? 

A.    By  the  ^rs«  rule.    (See  page  148.) 

*  Ex.  ICC.  t  Ex.  163. 


152 


HARMONY   AND  COMPOSITION. 


Q.  Suppose  you  had  inet  with  15-sharp,  and  that  it  liad  ascended  a  half-tone:  to  where  could 
you  liave  modulated? 

A.    To  C-sliarp  major,  or  A-sliarp  minor. 

Q.    Hy  what  rule? 

A.    By  the  firM  rule. 

Q.  Stippose  that  you  modulate  hy  the  secoml  rule  ;  what  interval  will  tlie  "  note  of  modular 
lation  "  be  to  the  dominant? 

A.    In  thefir.st  case,  it  will  be  a  fundamental  7th ;  in  the  lattnr  case,  it  will  be  a  minor 'dt\\.* 

Q.  Suppose  that  you  modulate  by  tlie./n-.sA  rule,  what  interval  will  the  "  note  of  modulation  " 
be  to  tlie  dominant? 

A.    In  t\\ejlrst  case,  it  will  be  a  major  3rd ;  in  the  latter,  a, fifth. ^ 

Exercises  such  as  the  preceding  (by  question  and  answer),  when  pursued  by 
the  student  to  any  extent,  may  be  made  the  source  of  real  inental  enjoyment;  they 
will  be  found  exceedingly  useful,  indeed  especially  so,  when  they  are  written  in 
notes  and  carried  out  into  actual  practice. 

Heretofore  our  attention  has  been  directed  solely  to  those  intervals  whiih 
proceeded  hy  half-tones  only  {ascending  or  descending);  and  upon  those  progressions 
were  established  our  first  and  second  rules.  Now,  however,  the  attention  of  the 
student  shall  be  directed  to  those  intervals  which  descend  by  whole  tones;  this 
naturally  leads  us  to  the 

THIRD   RULE 

Of  modulating  by  the  intervals  of  a  melody. 

*'  The  '  note  of  modulation  '  which  descends  a  whole  To^e,  modulates  to  a  key  which 

lies  a  WHOLE  tone  belovj  the  '  note  of  modulation.''  "     E. 
"  Or,  to  the  kelative  minor  of  that  key.'''     F. 


Ex.  i68. 


Modulation  to"B  flat  major.  Modulation  to  G  minor. 

At  E,  the  "note  of  modulation,"  C,  descends  a  whole  tone,  and  modulates  from  G  minor  to 
B-flat  major. 

At  K,  the  same  "  note  of  modulation,"  C,  descends  also  a  wfwle  tone,  but  modulates  from 
B-flat  major  to  G  minor. 

In  t\\Q  first  case,  the  "  note  of  modulation  "  is  5th  to  the  dominant  of  the  new  key. 

In  the  tatter  case,  the  "  note  of  modulation"  is  a  fundamental  7th  to  the  dominant  of  the 
ne%v  key. 

A  Melody  harmonized  according  to  the  Third  Rule. 

I  2.  3.  4.  s-  6.  7.  8. 

Ex.  169. 

Soprano. 
Alto. 

Tenor. 
Bass. 


Fig.  Bass 
and  Fund. 


i-^yjpid^ 


^lY^F 


0^Um 


^g^^^ 


•  See  inversion  of  dissonances,  page  119,  Ex.  127,  2. 


fEx.  163. 


HARMONY  AND   COMPOSITION. 


153 


ANALYSIS. 

The  exercise  in  G  minor  continues  in  that  key  until  tlie  commencement  of  bar  3 ;  here  the 
•'  note  of  modulation,"  C,  descends  a  wholetone  to  B-flat,  and  modulates  to  that  key. 

The  second  part  continues  in  the  same  to/ to  the  end  of  the  Gth  bar,  where  the  "note  of 
modulation"  again  descends  a  whole  tone,  and  modulates  to  the  original  key,  in  which  it 
concludes. 

The  following  example  exhibits  a  still  more  extended  application  of  this  rule. 
It  will  be  observed  that,  in  the  preceding  example,  we  modulated  simply  from  a 
minor  key  to  its  relative  major,  and  vice  versa.  Here,  however,  we  have  enlarged 
our  operations,  and,  by  the  same  rule,  have  modulated  to  others  which  are  more 
distantly  related  to  the  original  key. 

A  Melody  harmonized  by  the  same  Rule. 

3.  4-  5-  6.  7.  8. 


Tenor. 
Bass*. 


ANALYSIS. 

Bar  2.  The  "  note  of  modulation,"  D,  descends  a  whole  tone,  and  modulates  to  C  minort 
( relative  minor  to  the  subdoniinant  of  the  original  key.) 

Bars.  The  "note  of  modulation,"  A,  descends  a  wJiole  tone,  and  modulates  back  to  the 
original  key,  G  minor. 

The  second  part,  at  bar  .5,  commences  with  the  relative  major  ivithout  modulation  (that  is 
by  progression  t);  a  modulation,  however,  to  that  key  takes  place  on  the  second  part  of  bar  5. 

N.B.  The  consecutive  5ths  between  bars  4  and  5  are  admissable,  as  a  new  strain  commences 
at  bar  5. 

Bar  7.  G,  the  "  note  of  modulation,"  descends  a  tvliole  tone  to  F,  and  modulates  to  D  minor 
(relative  minor  to  the  dominant  of  the  original  key),  to  the  tonic  of  which  this  F  will  be  the 
m,inor  3rd.§ 

This  may  suffice  to  show,  in  a  slight  degree  what  may  be  effected  by  the  third 
rule.  It  is,  however,  only  by  practice,  and  a  careful  study  of  effects,  that  a 
thorough  knowledge  can  be  acquired  of  the  variety  which  these  rules  afford  in 

harmonizing. 

FOURTH   RULE 

Of  modulating  by  the  intervals  of  a  melody. 

"  The  '■note  of  modulation '  which  ascends  a  whole  tone  modulates  to  a  key,  to  the 
tonic  of  which  the  note,  when  it  has  thus  ascended,  will  he  a  major  3rrf." 


Ex.  171. 


^:^?==g=iis^  I ;  wf=r^ 


Modulation  to  the  key  of  C.  Modulation  to  the  key  of  D. 


Modulation  to  B  flat 


*  Let  the  student  figure  the  inverted  bass  himself. 
t  See  lower  part  page  62,  also  63. 


t  See  page  148. 

§  See  page  152,  Ex.  168. 


154 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 


At  I,  the  key  is  G  major.  The  "note  of  modulation,"  D,  ascends  a  tvhole  tone  to  E,  and 
modulates  to  the  key  of  C  major,  to  the  tonic  of  which  E  is  3rd.* 

At  II,  the  ••  note  of  modulation,"  E,  ascends  a  whole  tone  to  F-sharp,  and  modulates  to  the 
key  of  D  Tnajor.^ 

At  III,  the  key  is  G  minor.  The  "  note  of  modulation,"  C,  ascends  a  whole  tojie  to  D,  and 
modulates  to  B-flat.t 

N.B.  There  are  other  keys  to  which  this  rule  would  enable  us  to  modulate; 
but.  as  they  are  rather  too  far  removed  from  the  original  §  key,  they  should  be 
avoided. 

The  above  three  n^odulations,  therefore,  are  not  only  the  most  effective  in 
general  practice,  but  contain  sufficient  variety  for  all  our  purposes. 

N.B.  The  fourth  rule  admits  of  only  one  modulation,  in  which  the  note  of 
modulation  is  5th  to  the  dominant. 


A  Melody  harmonized  according  to  the  Fourth  Rule  of  modulating  by  the 
Intervals  of  a  Melody. 


Ex.  172. 

Soprano. 

Alto. 


Tenor,     j 
Bass.       \ 


Inv.  Bass. 


I.  2.  3.  4 

Andante  t    x 


^naaniet     »      ,     1       1  1     1      •    1^      1  1  1 


^ 


3tl^ 


^- 


w^^ 


'i 1 1    I 


5^    S 


i  tl 


:^S^ 


^ 


ANALYSIS. 

Bar  2.  The  "note  of  modulation, "^D,  ascends  a  whole  tone  to  E,  and  modulates  to  the  key 
of  C  major.ii 

Bar  3.  The  "  note  of  modulation,"  F-sharp,  ascends  a  hatf-tmie  to  G,  and  modulates  ( by 
tixe first  rule)  to  the  original  key. 

Bar  6.  The  "  note  of  modulation,"  E,  ascends  a  whole  tone  to  F-sharp,  and  modulates  to 
the  key  of  D  major. 

Bar  9.  The  "note  of  modulation,"  A,  ascends  a  whole  tone  to  B,  and  modulates  to  the 
ori(;inal  key. 

•  This  is  a  modulation  to  the  subdominant  of  the  original  key. 
t  A  modulation  to  the  dominant  of  the  original  key. 
t  The  relative  major  of  G  minor.       §  Extraneous  keys. 
li  This  is  a  modulation  to  the  subdominant  of  the  original  key. 


HARMONY  AKD   COMPOSITION. 


155 


Bar  13.    The  "  note  of  modulation,"  D-sharp,  ascends  a  half-tone  to  E,  and  modulates  to  E 
minor  ( by  the  first  rule ). 

Bar  23.    The  "  note  of  modulation,"  A,  ascends  a  whole  tone,  and  modulates  to  the  original 
key.* 

Having  disposed  of  those  notes  of  modulation  which  ascend  and  descend  by 
half  tones  and  whole  tones,  the  student  shall  now  be  introduced  to  the 

FIFTH    RULE 
Of  harmonizing  by  the  intervals  of  a  melody. 
"  When   any  interval    is  repeated  in  immediate   succession,  the   interval  thus 
REPEATED  modulates  to  a  key,  to  the  tonic  of  tohich  it  will  he  a  5th.''^  t 


Ex.  173. 


Mod.  to  C.        Mod.  to  A  minor.  Mod.  to  C.  Mod.  to  E  minor. 

At  I,  the  example  is  in  G  major.  At  bar  2,  the  note  G  is  repeated,  and  we  modulate  to  C 
major,  to  which  that  G  is  a  5th.  N.B.  Had  the  key  been  minor  (for  example,  G  minor  ),  we 
should  have  modulated  to  a  minor  key  ( C  minor ). 

At  II,  bar  4,  the  note  E  is  repeated,  and,  as  the  key  is  minor,  we  modulate  to  A  minor. 

It  is  necessary  to  notice,  that  the  above  remarks  refer  only  to  such  "  notes  of  modulation  " 
as  are  derived  from,  or  originate  in,  the  octave  of  the  preceding  chord. 

At  III,  as  the  "note  of  modulation,"  G,  bar  6,  is  derived  from  the  minor  3rd  of  the  preced- 
ing chord,  we  modulate  to  a  major  key.t 

Here,  however,  at  IV,  bar  8,  the  "  note  of  modulation,"  B,  is  derived  from  a  mojor  3rd  in  the 
preceding  chord ;  we  therefore  modulate  to  a  minor  key.  Let  this  distinction  be  well  kept  in 
mind. 

N.B.    The  "  note  of  modulation  "  will  then  be  an  octave  to  the  dominant  of  the  new  key. 

It  may  be  observed,  that  the  harmony,  as  we  proceed  with  these  rules, 
increases  in  richness,  and  becomes  more  and  still  more  interesting.  The  fifth  rule, 
especially  when  combined  with  some  of  the  others,  will  be  found  a  most  powerful 
auxiliary  in  this  respect. 

A  Melody  harmonized  according  to  the  Fifth  Rule  of  modulating  by  the 
Intervals  of  a  Melody. 
I,  2.  3.         4.  5.  6.  7-         8. 

Moderate.  ,»,,,,      1     1 


Ex.  174. 

Soprano. 

Alto. 


^^^H^rf^^^^frriHri^i 


lA    tj^A^J:iA      A     -i   Jt^'     Ijjjj^^^^ 


^^m 


Tenor.      ^ 
Bass. 


Inv.  Bass. 


•  When  the  fourth  rule  is  employed,  a  licensed  7th  becomes  indispensable.  (See  licensed 
7th,  page  43.) 

t  Observe  the  analogy  between  this  rule  and  the  third  rule  of  harmonizing  by  fundamental 
Itasses,  Ex.  38. 

t  See  Ex.  5C,  page  67,  m,  n. 


166 


HARMONY   AND  COMPOSITION. 

The  same  Melodg  as  the  preceding  in  Extended  Harmony. 
9.  10.  II.  12.  13. 


i^^iigig^^g^i^ 


14. 


15- 


16. 


S       I 


r 


ANALYSIS. 

Bar  1.  The  last,  note, B  ("note  of  modulation"),  is  repeated.  As  tliis  "note  of  modula- 
tion "  is,  in  the  preceding  bar,  derived  from  a  major  3rd,  we  modulate  to  a  mhinr  key  —  E  minor. 
(See  Ex.  173,  IV.) 

Bar  2.    B,  the  "  note  of  modulation,"  ascends  a  half-tone,  and  modulates  to  C  major." 

Bar  3.    C,  the  "  note  of  modulation,"  descends  a  half-tone,^  to  B,  and  modulates  to  G  major. 

Bar  4.    A,  the  "  note  of  modulation,"  descends  a  whole  tone,t  and  modulates  to  E  minor. 

Bar  5.    G,  tlie  "note  of  modulation,"  descends  a  half-tone,^  and  modulates  to  D  major. 

Bar  6.  F-sharp,  the  "  note  of  modulation,"  repeated,  derived  from  a  major  3rd,  modulates 
to  B  minor.    See  IV. 

From  bars  9  to  IG  is  in  extended  harmony,  by  means  of  wliich  a  new  effect  is  produced,  not 
only  with  reference  to  the  harmony  collectively,  but  also  in  the  melodious  protjression  of  the  alto 
and  tenor;  and,  as  tliese  inner  parts  may  hereafter  be  converted  into  principal  melodies  and  then 
harmonized,  it  is  a  matter  of  some  importance  that  the  pupil  pay  particular  attention  to  what  has 
here  been  said  upon  this  interesting  subject,  and  reflect  upcm  it. 

Besides  this,  there  will  also  be  perceived  a  difference  in  the  application  of  some  of  the 
rules:  for  instance  — at  bar  lo,  B,  the  "note  of  modulation." ascends  a  half-tone:  but.  instead  of 
modulating  to  C  major,  as  at  bar  2,  we  have  modulated  to  the  relative  minor  (A  minor);  in  wliich 
key  the  liarmony  remains  until  it  arrives  at  the  "nott;  of  modulation,"  A,  ))ar  12.  These  altera- 
tions and  changes  in  the  modulation  should  be  very  carefully  attended  to ;  they  produce  new 
melodies. 

Bar  17  commences  in  D  minor. 

Bar  18.    D.  the  "  note  of  modulation,"  descends  a  vhole  tone,  and  modulates  to  A  minor.t 

Bar  19.    The  last  note.  A,  is  repeated,  and  modulates  to  D  minor. 

Bar  20.    The  last  note,  A-sharp,  ascends  a  half-tone,  and  modulates  to  B  nunor. 

Bar  21.    B,  the  last  note  is  repeated,  and  modulates  to  E  minor.    See  Ex.  17.3,  II,  and  obs. 

Bar  23.    D,  the  second  note   ascends  a  ivhole  tone,  and  modulates  to  C  major.  § 

The  following  example  in  E  minor  will  be  found  a  most  interesting  and  use- 
ful study.  Let  it  be  observed,  that,  in  harmonizing  this  melody,  we  have 
exaployed  principally  the  fifth  rule.     For  the  first  five  bars,  the  melody  is  exceed- 

•  First  rule.  t  Second  rule.  t  Third  rule.  §  Fourth  rule. 


HARMONY   AXD   COMPOSITION. 


157 


ingly  monotonous  (being  designedly  confined  nearly  within  the  compass  of  two 
intervals*),  and  consequently  affords  a  fair  opportunity  of  testimj  the  efficacy  of 
that  rule.  By  employing  it  on  the  present  occasion,  all  the  monotonous  effect  of 
the  melody  is  not  only  removed,  but  such  a  melodious  progression  is  imparted  to 
the  inner  parts  (especially  to  the  tenor),  that  we  have  been  enabled  to  convert  that 
part  into  a  principal  melody,  as  exhibited  in  Ex.  175,  II. 


A  Minor  Melody  harmonized  according  to  tlie  Fifth  Rule. 


Ex.  175.  I. 
Soprano 
Alto. 


Tenor. 
Bass. 


12. 


13- 


14. 


IS- 


16. 


1 


^^-f-rTr^^-+-rr=>  V  >-r 


dim. 


If  the  above  and  the /oiiowmf/  exercise  be  carefully  examined,  the  difference 
between  them  will  be  found  to  be  verij  great  indeed;  for  the  former  is  in  a  minor, 
from  which  the  present  one,  which  is  in  a  major  key,  has  been  extracted  or 
derived. 

The  folloiving  Melody  loas  the  Tenor  in  the  preceding  Exerci.se. 

4.  5.  6.  7-  8. 

Ex.  175.  II 
Soprano. 

Alto. 


Tenor, 
Bass. 


jggBsaig 


a 


F=Fr 


W 


13- 


-I l-T 1- 


14. 


'5- 


^^=^- 


16. 


■:3=r- 


Above  all  things,  let  it  be  kept  in  mind  that  the  above  melody  originated  in  the 
preceding  exercise,  in  which  it  was  the  tenor;  that  exercise  was  in  the  key  of  E 


*  Three  of  these  five  bars  contain,  indeed,  only  one  note. 


158 


HARMONY  AND   COMPOSITION". 


minor;  and  that  the  present  one  is  in  the  key  of  G  major.  Between  them,  there  is 
little  or  no  resemblance.  The  rhythm  alone,  beinj;  the  same  in  both,  may  perhaps 
be  said  to  produce  some  resemblance,  but  that  is  all. 

The  following  example  exhibits  a  portion  of  the  foregoing  melody,  with  the 
rhythm  changed  from  common  time  to  \.  This  rhythm  also  is  an  important  study, 
which  shall  appear  in  a  subsequent  part  of  this  work. 

Part  of  the  preceding  Melody,  the  Rhythm  being  changed. 
2,  3.  4-  5.  6.  7- 


The  following  example,  which  is  written  for  the  pianoforte,  exhibits  the  jifth 
rule  in  quite  a  different  character.  The  effect  produced  by  that  rule  in  the  preced- 
ing examples  was  soft,  and,  as  it  were,  conciliating.  Here,  however,  the  effect  is 
qvute  contrary.  ^ 

Another  Exercise  on  the  same  Rule,]  written  for  the  Pianoforte. 
Con  s^irito.  ^i  (5)  (I)  U/  (5) 


Ex.  176. 


t  The  figures  between  the  parentheses  show  what  rule  has  been  employed. 


HARMONY  AXD   COMPOSITION^. 


After  the  minute  analyses  of  preceding  examples,  it  may  suffice  to  say  that  the 
observations  made  already  may  be  applied  here  with  equal  force. 


SIXTH   AXD   LAST   RULE 
Of  modulating  by  the  intervals  of  a  melody. 

"  When  the  ''note  of  modulation'  ascends  o  perfect  fourth,  or  {which  is  the  same 
thing)  descends  a  perfect  fifth,  w;e  may  modulate  to  a  key,  to  the  tonic 
of  which  that  note,  when  it  has  thus  proceeded,  will  be  an  octave.'"     G. 

"  Or,  to  a  key  to  which  that  note  will  be  a  bth.'''*    H. 


-G. 


Ex.  177- 


^ 


^ 


d==2: 


^Si 


At  I,  G,  the  "note  of  modulatiou,"  B,  bar  2,  ascends  a  fourth,  and  modulates  to  the  key  ol 
E ;  to  the  tonic  of  which,  that  E  is  the  octave.    (  See  fundamental  bass. ) 

The  "  note  of  modulation,"  A,  bar  3,  ascends  a  4tb  to  D,  to  the  key  of  which  it  modulates.f 

At  II,  H,  the  "note  of  modulation,"  B,  bar  5,  ascends  a  fourth  to  E,  as  at  bar  2;  but  how 
VERY  different  is  the  modulation !    For  example : 

At  I,  G,  bar  2,  we  modulated  to  the  key  of  E. 

At  II,  H,  bar  5,  by  the  same  "  note  of  modulation  "  we  modulate  to  the  key  of  A. 

The  great  importance  of  this  rule  in  harmonizing,  and  the  vast  influence  which 
it  exercises  in  modulation,  will  be  better  understood  when  practically  illustrated. 

N.B.  When  this  rule  is  employed,  it  is  good  to  let  the  inverted  bas.ses  and 
melody  proceed  by  contrary  motion;  as  the  "note  of  modulation,"  therefore, 
ascends  in  example  178,  G,  we  prefer  the  third  inversion;  and,  for  the  same  reason, 
when  the  "note  of  modulation"  descends,  we  prefer  the  Jirsf  inversion,  as  in  the 
following  example :  — 


Ex.  178. 


M 


H. 


t^ 


'!=> 1-: 


!  zrvtt  t  .1. 


ti§ 


¥ 


:X^ 


^ 


$ 


-TTJ S^ 


tt? 


m 


js= 


EB^ra 


*  These  keys  may  be  either  major  or  minor. 

,  As  this  rule  is  also  divided  in  two  parts,  we  have,  in  order  to  distinguish  them,  employed 
the  letters  G  and  H  for  tiiis  purpose. 


160 


HARMONY   AXD   COMPOSITION. 


The  employment  of  the  otlier  inversion  (the  second)  is  not,  however,  to  be 
rejected;  nor  shoukl  we  confine  ourselves  to  contrary  motion  only,  as  that  would 
produce  a  monotonous  effect,  which  should  be  carefully  avoided. 

As  the  harmony  of  the  followinf>;  mehtdy  will  hereafter  become  the  root  or 
parent  of  many  other  melodies,  the  pupil  is  strongly  recommended  to  examine  it 
most  carefully  —  most  minutely ;  especially  where  the  dijrerence  of  effect  produced 
by  the  employment  of  the  rule  with  reference  to  G  or  II,  is  introduced. 

A  Melody  harmonized  according  to  the  Sixth  Rule  of  modulatimj  by  the 
Intervals  of  a  Melody. 


*  Notes  of  modulation,  according  to  G. 

t  Here,  in  order  to  obtain  a  flowing  melody  for  the  tenor,  we  have  permitted  tlie  fund* 
mental  Ttli  to  descend  to  the  5th,  prior  to  its  resolution. 


HARMONY   AND   COMPOSITION.  161 

ANALYSIS. 

As  the  "note  of  modulation,"  B,  bar  2,  ascends  a  4th,  we  might  have  modulated  to  the  key 
ofE;  instead  of  which,  we  have  continued  In  i\\v.  orirr'tnal  key.  Why?  It  is  not  good  to  modu- 
late so  soon  out  of  the  original  key.  Compare  this  liar  with  bar  C.  where  we  have  modulated  t( 
the  key  of  E. 

Bar  .3.  The  "  note  of  modulation."  A,  ascends  a  4tli,  and  modulates  to  the  key  of  D,*  by 
the^rst  part  of  that  rule  (G). 

Bar  4.    We  have  modulated  back  to  the  original  key,  by  the  second  rule.    (Page  150.) 
Bar  5.    Compare  this  bar  with  bars  2  and  6. 

N.B.  There,  in  order  to  procure  a,  flowing  melody  in  the  bass,  we  have  employed  the  first 
inversion,  although  it  does  produce  similar  motion. 

Bar  6.    We  have,  for  the  same  reason,  employed  the  second  inversion. 

This  will  suffice  to  show  the  most  efficacious  manner  of  choosing  inverted  basses  on  those 
occasions. 

Bar  G.  The  "  note  of  modulation,"  B,  ascends  a  4th,  and  modulates  to  the  key  of  E,  in 
which  key  the  first  part  closes. 

Bar  9.  The  "  note  of  modulation,"  B,  ascends  a  4th  to  E,  and  modulates  to  the  key  of  A  (the 
original  key).t    Here  the  second  part  of  the  sixth  rule  (H)  is  employed.     (See  Ex.  177,  II.) 

Bar  1.3.  C-sharp,  the  "  note  of  modulation,"  modulates  to  F-sharp  minor,t  by  the  fifth  rule. 
(Tage  153.) 

Bar  11.    F-sharp  descends  a  fifth  to  B,  and  modulates  to  B  minor.§ 

Bar  18.    Modulation  to  the  key  of  A. 

Bar  21.    Modulation  to  E  minor. 

Bar  22.    Modulation  to  D  major. 

Compare  these  two  modulations  with  those  at  17  and  18,  and  observe  that,  although  the 
"  notes  of  modulation  "  and  the  progression  of  them  are  the  same  in  both  cases,  yet  how  very  dif- 
ferent is  the  result.  There,  we  modulated  to  B  major  and  then  to  A  major.  Here,  we  modulate  to 
E  major  and  then  to  D  major.  Observe  also  the  difference  of  the  progression  of  the  inner  parts 
with  close  attention,  as  well  as  that  produced  by  the  satne  "notes  of  modulation,"  bars  25,  26,  29, 
and  30. 

N.B.    Fnmi  bar  25  to  32  the  rule  is  exhibited  in  a  minor  kcy.n 

It  is  unnecessary  to  enter  more  fully  into  the  analysis  of  the  present  exercise, 
as  the  subject  which  we  are  now  going  to  present  to  the  intelligent  pupil,  will 
afford  ample  matter  for  this  purpose  —  a  subject  one  of  the  most  interesting  and 
intellectual.,  and  at  the  same  time,  to  the  practical  harmonist,  one  of  the  most 
important  that  can  well  be  conceived;  \\z.,  extracting  or  selecting  from  a  harmo- 
nized melody  one  or  other  of  its  inner  parts,  or  inverted  basses,  converting  it  into 
a.  principal  me/o(iv/,  and,  having  harmonized  it,  extracting  again  out  of  that  har- 
mony one  of  the  inner  parts,  and  converting  it  also  into  a  princiiml  melody.^ 
Dviring  this  proc;ess,  we  shall  not  always  select  the  entire  of  an  inner  part,  but 
extract  such  portions  of  each  as  shall,  when  formed  into  a  principal  melody,  produce 
a  pleasing  and  melodious  progression.  We  have  already  exhibited  a  specimen  of 
this  sort**;  but  we  shall  now  enter  more  fully  upon  the  subject. 

Our  first  care  should  be  to  examine  the  progression  of  the  alto,  tenor,  and  Inuis 
of  those  examples  out  of  which  we  intend  to  make  our  extracts. 

The  following  exercise  contains  a  melody  which  has  been  extracted  from 
different  parts  of  example  179.     To  discover  from  wliich  of  the  parts  the  present 

*  Subdominant.  —  Let  it  be  remembered  that  we  are  not  obliged  to  modulate. 

t  The  note  D,  in  the  inverted  bass,  is  the  dissonance  of  the  4th.  (See  dissonance,  Ex.  127, 
bar  3.) 

t  Relative  minor  to  the  orginal  key.  §  Relative  minor  to  the  subdominant  of  the  original 
key.  II  Irrelative  minor  to  the  original  key. 

H  Hinted  at  in  pages  14h,  i50.  *•  Ex.  175.  II. 


162 


HARMONY   AND   COMPOSITION. 


new  melody  has  been  constructed,  let  the  student  compare  bar  with  bar  as  they  are 
Qumbered;  for  the  numbers  of  both  examples  correspond. 

A  Melody  extracted  from  the  Harmony  of  Ex.  179,  and  harmonized  here 
in  a  variety  of  ways. 


Ex.  i8o, 


Tenor  of  Ex.  192. 
17.  18. 


Alto  of  Ex.  192. 


19. 


23.  24. 


Tenor  of  Ex.  192. 
Minor.     25.  26.  27. 


28. 


Alto  of  Ex.  192. 
29.  30.  31.  32. 

^4 


H^^^^ 


■?=g^=F^=^ 


^ 


Let  the  student  attend  to  the  following  directions :  — 

1.     To  examine  and  compare  the  harmony  of  both  examples,  bar  by  bar;  not 
superficially,  but  very  carefully. 

t  The  notes  of  embellisliment y/hich  appear  in  this  example,  called  "passirjfirnotes,"  shall 
he  explained  in  the  next  number.    They  do  not  form  an  essential  part  of  the  harmony. 

§  The  3rd,  in  the  alto,  descends  to  make  room  for  the  dissonance  of  the  9th  in  the  soprano 
(See  Ex.  107,  page  IO8,  and  explanation.) 

II  The  3rd  of  the  dominant,  in  the  soprano,  afterwards  in  the  alto,  descends  here  by  license; 
the  tenor,  however,  in  the  first  instance  where  that  3rd  is  doubled,  makes  amends  for  this  seeming 
impropriety  by  ascending. 


HARMONY  AND   COMPOSITION. 


16S 


2.  To  note  particularly  the  progression  of  each  of  the  three  parts^  with  a 
view  to  their  being  hereafter  converted  into  principal  melodies. 

3.  Occasionally  to  change  close  harmony  into  extended,  and  vice  versa; 
because  by  this  process  a  new  progression  of  the  inner  parts  will  naturally 
follow.  This  is  a  matter  of  great  consequence,  the  value  of  which  may  perhaps 
be  properly  estimated  by  and  by. 

4.  To  alter,  sometimes,  the  inverted  basses;  for,  by  that  means  also,  a  new 
progression  is  introduced  into  the  inner  parts. 

As  the  several  parts  of  Ex.  179,  from  which  the  neio  melody  of  Ex.  ISO  has 
been  extracted,  are  sufficiently  marked,  we  shall  refer  only  to  such  matters  as  may 
assist  the  student  in  his  reflection,  while  engaged  in  this  pursuit. 

When  we  examine  Ex.  180,  the  melody,  the  first  object  that  arrests  our  atten- 
tion is  the  neio  combination  of  harmony  and  modulation  which  presents  itself  at 
every  step ;  for  instance,  the  note  of  modulation,  D,  in  the  soprano,  bar  5  (original 
tenor),  enables  us  to  modulate  to  F-sharp  minor.  Now,  let  it  be  observed  that  this 
is  a  modulation  which  the  orujinal  harmony  did  not  admit  of.  Thus  not  only  is  a 
new  effect  produced  in  the  harmony  generally,  but  also  a  new  progression  occurs 
in  the  inner  parts,  which,  by  a  little  management,  may  be  turned  to  good 
account.  In  bar  6,  by  selecting  the  alto,  we  are  enabled  to  introduce  C-natural, 
the  minor  9th;  thus  producing  the  chord  of  the  diminished  7th  (a  most  effective 
chord),  from  which  we  were  excluded  in  the  original. 

In  bar  11,  the  note  B,  in  the  soprano  {bass  in  the  original),  enables  us  to  modu- 
late to  F-sharp  minor. 

From  bar  12  to  16,  we  have  selected  the  tenor,  and  modulated  to  the  key  of  A, 
bar  14;  while  in  the  original,  we  modulate  to  F-sharp  minor. 

To  enter  into  a  particular  analysis  of  each  bar  of  these  two  examjiles  would  be 
endless,  and  calculated  rather  to  retard  than  advance  the  pupil  in  his  studies. 
Examples  are  before  him,  the  corresponding  bars  of  which  are  ail  numbered,  and  to 
them  a  constant  and  careful  reference  is  recommended.     It  will  amply  repay  him. 

The  following  is  a  melody  extracted  from  the  tenor  and  bass  of  Ex.  179,  com- 
mencing at  the  0th  bar.     Compare  this  harmony  with  the  original. 


E.x.  i8i. 


The  Tenor  of  Ex.  192. 
10.  II 


The  Bass  of  Ex.  192. 
13.  14. 


«H^ 


The  Bass  of  Ex.  192  continued. 
15.  16. 


*  Here  again  the  third  of  the  dominant   chord  descends  on  the  5th  of  the  tonic,  in  order  t« 
enrich  the  harmony.    These,  however,  are  licenses,  which  must  be  used  very  sparingly. 


164 


HARMONY   AND   COMPOSITION. 


The  following  melody  is  extracted  from  the  alto  in  Ex.  179,  commencing  at 
bar  9. 

g.  lo.  II.  12.  13.  14. 

^.      -  -_  !    ,.  !      J     ^ 


Ex.  182. 


m^^- 


'^ »—-r^^  A  <=^m    ^ — =2 ^^ — V^ — K-, 


:=2rrjtet: 


\-i     J_'.      I  J- 


A 


J. 


s^ 


Ij 


16. 


17- 


19. 


^. 


f^ 


ifte 


^rrO^    Ht»_^-=^-gi 


F=F=t 


-J     J-' 


e^ 


»^ 


-L=i. 


S 


-I U 


Compare  the  progression  of  the  inner  parts  of  the  harmony  from  18  to  Ki  with 
17  to  20. 

Heretofore  we  have  selected  our  new  melodies  from  Ex.  179.  That  example 
we  will  call  "  the  Ori'jinal.''  and  Ex.  180  "the  Branch.'''  We  shall  now  make  our 
selections  from  "  the  Branch,"  and  construct  from  it  neiv  melodies  for  harmo- 
nizing. 

The  following  melody  (ending  in  C-sharp  minor)  exhibits  the  tenor  of  Ex.  180 
(which  ended  in  G  major.) 

A  few  passing  notes  are  introduced,  to  render  the  progression  more  smooth 
and  melodious. 


Ex.  183. 


Here  we  have  the  bass  and  alto  of   "the   Branch"    as  a  new  melody,  from 
bar  1  to  S. 


Ihe  Bass  of  Ex.  193. 


The  Alto  of  Ex.  193. 
S-  6.  7. 


ffTT^i-Prr^-^T^r^-r^? 


Ex.  184. 


Although  far  from  being  exhausted,  this  portion  of  the  subject  must  be  con- 
cluded with  the  next  example.     The  i)upil  is  advised  to  stamp  tliese  rules  indelibly 

*  The  fundamental  7th  in  the  tenor  is  omitted,  in  order  to  enrich  the  succeeding  tonic  choril 
with  the  6th. 


HARMONT   AND   COMPOSITION. 


16S 


upon  his  memory  by  patient  practice  and  careful  study.  The  thinking  faculties 
should  be  brought  into  active  operation;  the  variety  of  effects  should  be  heard, 
examined,  and  accurately  ?!ompared:  thus  vpill  the  judgment  become  gradually 
matured,  and  produce  the  accomplished  harmonist. 

Be  not  too  anxious  to  proceed;  reperuse  and  reflect;  follow  the  advice  of  the 
sage  Lord  Bacon:  "Make  haste  slowly."' 

y.B.  This  present  Part  i.s  eminently  worthy  of  peculiar  attention;  it  brings 
to  light  a  vast  mine  of  mv;sical  wealth,  opening  up  inexhaustible  stores  of  melody 
and  harmony,  otherwise  perhaps  forever  lost;  and  it  may  be  pardoned  were  we  to 
go  so  far  as  to  say  that  it  is  sufficient  of  itself  to  furnish  a  fund  of  elegant  ideas, 
even  to  the  student  Avho  has  none. 


A  part  of  Ex.  179,  harmonized  in  the  relative  minor.     (See  page  160.) 
2.  3-  4.  S-  6.  7. 


Ex.  185. 


Inv.  Bass, 


*  Compare  these  with  bars  12,  13,  14. 


N.B.     The  next  number  will  comprise  the  subject  of  Pats.siwj  Notes,  Auxillarji 
Notes,  and  Secondary  Harmony, 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 


NOTES  OF  EMBELLISHMENT, 

PASSING  AND  AUXILIARY  NOTES. 


Preparatory  to  entering  ui)on  this  important  branch  of  harmony,  it  is  neces* 
sarj'  to  explain  what  is  understood  by  the 

Three  Motions  in  Harmontj. 

When  two  or  7nore  parts  proceed  together,  ascending  or  descending,  they  are 
said  to  proceed  by  similar  motion,  as  at  (a)  in  the  following  example. 

When  one  part  ascends  or  descends  while  another  remains  in  its  place,  an 
oblique  motion  is  produced,  as  at  (b). 

When  one  part  ascends  w'hile  another  descends,  they  proceed  by  contra nj 
motion,  as  at  (c). 


Ex.  I 


Similar  and  Contrary.       ^""^^^y^' ?,^'T^'  ^""^ 

»„ontrary.  jj^^^  ^^^  ^^^  combined. 


^^^^m 


Be 


^ 


These  different  motions  or  progressions  m;iy  be  more  or  less  <omblned.  Ttro  parts  may 
proceed  by  similar  or  contrary  motion,  and  a  third  part  remain  in  its  place,  as  at  {d ).  prndming 
coUevtivhj  the  similar  and  oblique;  at  (e),  contrary  and  oblique:  at  (/),  similar  and  contrary; 
at  ((7),  similar,  oblique,  and  contrary;  at  (h),  all  are  combined  in  the  resolution  of  the  chord  of 
the  fundamental  7th. 

N.B.     Similar  motion  is  permitted  only  when  the  parts  proceed  by  thirds  or 
sixths:  with  the  latter,  the  fourth  may  be  combined,  as  at  (a). 

Consecutive  Fifths  and  Elyliths. 

It  has  already  been  shown  elsewhere*  how  these  forbidden  progressions  may 
In  some  measure  be  avoided.     Now,  however,  it  becomes  necessary  to  dilate  some- 
^vhat  more  on  this  subject,  as  frequent  references  will  be  made  to  it  hereafter. 
(166)  •  See  pages  34,  35,  36 ;  also  page  41. 


HARMONY  AND   COMPOSITION. 


167 


One  general  rule  will  suffice  to  show  how  these  disallowed  progressions  may 
be  avoided ;  viz. :  By  the  employment  of  contrary  or  oblique  motion. 


Ex.  1S7. 


'^tr^ri^^w^m 


Haydn. 


^ 


a3      '=^-- 


^ 


s  /. 


:J=^ 


T=r^ 


^ 


Haydn. 


tfrrrg" 


V~'=^ 


At  ( a ),  consecutive  5ths  and  8ths ;  at  ( 6 ),  prevented  by  contrary  motion ;  at  ( c ),  consecutive 
5ths  and  8ths ;  at  ( d ),  the  8th  prevented  by  contrary,  and  the  5th  by  oblique  motion. 

Consecutive  5ths  and  8ths  are  permitted  when  the  parts  proceed  by  contrary 
motion. 

At  ( e ),  8th  between  treble  and  bass.  At  (/),  5th  between  te7ior  and  bass.  Extracted  from 
Haydn's  Quartets. 

Hidden  Fifths  and  Eighths, 

Although  these  progressions  are  very  little  regarded  by  modern  composers, 
yet  it  may  be  necessary  to  mention  that  when  two  parts  proceed  together  by 
similar  motion,  and  terminate  their  progression  by  8ths,  they  are  said  to  produce 
HIDDEN  consecutive  8ths,  asat  (gr);  for  if  the  space  between  these  two  intervals 
were  filled  up,  as  at  (h),  consecutive  Sths  would  be  the  consequence;  but  where 
these  notes  are  not  introduced,  such  consecutives  are  purely  imaginary.  How- 
ever, they  may  be  prevented  by  contrary  motion,  as  at  (i).  The  same  observa- 
ti(ms  apply  to  hidden  5ths  (see  k,  I).  Hidden  5ths  and  Sths  are  generally 
allowable;  and  it  will  be  found  that  the  works  of  the  most  classical  authors 
abound  with  them. 

Notes  of  Emhellishment. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  harmony  which  has  hitherto  engaged  our  atten- 
tion consists  solely  of  concords,  chords  of  the  fundamental  7th,  minor  9th,  and  their 
different  inversions,  t  founded  on  a  progression  of  fundamental  basses.  To  this 
fact  we  would  now  most  particularly  direct  the  attention  of  the  pupil;  because 
we  are  about  to  introduce  notes  or  sounds  into  that  harmony  which  do  not 
form  an  essential  part  of  it.  These  notes  of  embellishment  are  employed  for  various 
purposes;  one  of  which  is,  that  we  may  obtain  a  more  flowing  and  melodious  pro- 
gression than  that  which  is  produced  by  the  more  simple  intervals  of  a  melody  or 
harmony,  which  we  call  essential  notes,  in  contradistinction  to  those  called  notes 
of  embellishment. 

t  Dissonances  must  for  the  present  be  kept  out  of  view. 


168 


HARMONY   AND   COMPOSITION. 


Ex.  i88.  / 


^S 


T 


:t= 


ii 


At  I  (a  ),  tlie  intervals  of  the  melody  (the  essential  notes  )  i)roceed  by  thirds.  The  siiact 
between  these  thirds  we  may  fill  up  as  represented  by  dots  ( at  ^ ),  and  as  tliey  are  usually 
written  (at  c).    Similarly  at  II  the  spaces  between  the  essential  notes  may  be  filled. 

When  notes  are  thus  introduced  between  essentials^  they  are  called 

Simple  Passing  Notes; 
because  they  pass  directly  between  one  essential  note  of  the  harmony  and  another.* 

These  passing  notes  may  be  written  either  before  6r  after  the  essential  notes. 

When  they  are  introduced  immediately  after  the  essential  notes  (as  at  c), 
they  are  called  "  unaccexteb." 

When  they  are  introduced  before  the  essential  notes,  they  are  called 
"  accented  passinr/  notes.'''' 

In  the  preceding  example,  188,  II,  (i,  all  the  passing  notes  (except  the  F)  are 
accented. 

The  a  cce»i<ficZ  passing  note  occupies  the  first  portion  of  the  t'lme  belonging  to 
the  essential  note. 

The  unaccented  occupies  the  second  portion  (as  marked  x  at  e). 

The  following  example  exhibits  a  practical  illustration  of  this  subject:  — 


Ex.  iS 

I. 


III. 


IV. 


Simple  Melody, 


At  I,  is  a  simple  melody,  the  intervals  of  which  proceed  chiefly  by  thirds:'^  at  II,  this  mel- 
ody is  embellished  with  imrjcce/itw^  passing'  notes;  and  at  III,  they  are  introduced  in  the  bass; 
by  which  a  sort  of  ronrcrsntion  is  carried  on  between  the  l)ass  and  soprano,  called  "  ImitatiDii.^t 
At  IV,  appears  the  simple  bass  (that  is,  without  any  embellishment).  This  bass  is  figured, 
showing  that  the  essential  notes  only  should  be  figured,  and  710  other.% 

*  These  (and  none  else)  are  the  real,  the  legitimate  passing  note;-..  The  reason  for  this 
observation  will  be  seen  presently. 

t  A  progression  peculiarly  suited  to  the  introduction  of  passing  notes.  %  Of  this,  more 
hereafter. 

§  Many  errors  are  committed  in  figuring  the  inverted  bass,  by  not  attending  carefully  to  this 
point. 


HARMONY   AND   COMPOSITION. 


16a 


It  is  evident  that,  through  the  agency  of  these  passing  notes,  the  melodious 
progression  of  the  soprano  and  ftrr.s.s  is  much  improved.  Let  us  now  try  whether 
we  cannot  introduce  them  also  into  the  other  parts.  We  will  take,  for  instance, 
the  melody  at  I,  in  the  preceding  example,  and  harmonize  it  in  four  parts. 


Here  we  find  that  the pecnlinr  character  of  the  passage*  in  the  soprano,  at  h&v  1,  is  imi- 
tated by  the  alto  at  bar  2,  and  by  the  tfiior  at  bar  3.  proceeding,  in  the  latter  case,  by  Srds.t  (  This 
is  a  progression  of  compound  passing  notes  in  similar  motion,  t )  At  bar  4,  the  bass  commences 
a  neir  passage,  in  conjuncti(m  with  tlio  tenor,  ascending  by  3rds  in  similar  motion,  which,  at  bar  5, 
is  imitated  by  the  soprano,  in  contrary  motion.  § 

Supposing  the  alto,  bar  4,  to  originate  the  passage  of  imitation.  —  in  that  case,  the  soprano 
imitates  it  at  bar  5. 

At  bar  4,  it  will  be  observed  that,  while  the  bass  and  tenor  ascend  together  by  Srds,  in  sim- 
ilar motion,  the  soprano  and  alto  dcsrrncl  together  by  sixths.  Thus  we  see  that,  while  tico  of  the 
four  parts  proceed  together  by  .s/?///7f/r  motion,  they  collcctirelij  proceed  by  contrary  motion,  n 
Compound  progressions  like  this  should  be  carefully  noticed ;  they  abound  in  the  compositions  of 
good  masters.H  —  N.  B.  Bars  3  and  4,  consecutive  5ths  between  alto  and  bass,  in  contrary 
motion.**. 

As  passing  notes  do  Not  form  any  part  of  the  essential  harmony,  they  must  be 
considered  more  or  less  as  dissonances.  Unaccented  passing  notes  being  less  dis- 
sonant than  the  accented,  may  be  considered  as  nearer  allied  to  consonances; 
while  the  accented,  being  struck  with  the  chord,  and  consequently  more  discord- 
ant in  their  effect,  may  be  considered  as  nearer  allied  to  the  reaZ  dissonances;  tt 
as  the  following  example  will  illustrate  :  — 


ra      ,  rP 


II.  III. 


Ex.  191. 


At  I,  is  a  simple  melody  witli  the  bass,  botli  proceeding  by  thirds  in  contrary  motion.  At  II, 
are  exhilnted  unaccented  passing  notes.  At  III,  accented  passing  notes.  Here  we  perceive  that 
the  note  D,  being  struck  with  the  inverted  l)ass,  (J,  produces  an  effect  similar  to  the  dissonance 
of  the  9th  when  it  resolves  into  the  8th ;  and  the  note  E,  when  struck  witli  the  inverted  bass,  F, 
produces  that  of  the  dissonance  of  the  6th  resolving  into  the  5th.  tt  They  might,  therefore,  be 
easily  mistaken  for  (//(prepared  dissonances,  unless  the  principle  on  which  these  passing  notes 
are  established  be  well  understood. 

*  Sometimes  called  "snhject."  t  Tliey  are  tenths;  but  in  simple  counterpoint  they  are  co» 
sidered  as  3rds  only. 

t  See  Ex.  180.  a.  §  See  Ex.  18(!,  c.    ||  See  Ex.  186,/.  H  See  note,  page  171.   *•  See  Ex.  187,/. 

tt  See  chord  of  the  fundamental  7th  compared  with  dissonances,  page  106. 

ttSee  dissonances,  Ex.  100,  II. 


no 


HARMONY   AND   COMPOSITION. 


When  the  essential  notes  of  a  melody  proceed  by  seconds,  and  these  seconds 
are  whole  tones,  then  the  passing  note  will  be  a  minor  semitone. 


Ex.  192.  \ 


At  I,  the  melody  ( a  portion  of  the  diatonic  scale )  proceeds  by  whole  tones. 
At  II,  C-sharp  and  D-sharp  form  the  passing  notes. 

Passing  notes  of  this  description  (which  should  be  of  short  duration)  maybe 
very  effectively  employed  as  notes  of  modulation. 


Passing  Notes  by  Ilalf-Tones  converted  into  Notes  of  Modulation. 


^=^4^ 


Ex.  193.  / 


That  converting  passing  notes  thus  into  notes  of  modulation  is  a  subject  of 
great  importance  will  be  evident  if  we  compare  the  harmony  of  the  above 
example  with  the  one  immediately  preceding.  Let  the  pupil  give  this  matter  his 
serious  consideration. 

The  following  exam])le  affords  instances  of  the  effective  introduction  of  all 
these  passing  notes :  — 


Ex.  194. 


At  I,  is  a  simple  melody. 
At  II,  M/iaccented  passinp;  notes. 


At  III,  aecen/erf  passing  notes. 

At  IV,  they  are  treated  as  notes  of  modulation. 


We  shall  here  give  a  specimen  of  a  harmonized  melody  embellished  with  pass- 
ing Notes;  and  let  the  pupil  particularly  notice  the  effect  produced  by  the 
passing  note,  B-natural,  combined  with  the  fundamental  7th,  at  bars  1  and  2,  as 
also  bars  5  and  6. 

•See  modulations  by  the  intervals  of  a  melody,  lower  part  of  page  148,  also  page  149,  Ex.  163. 
t  The  passing  note  will  be  more  fully  explained  when  we  treat  of  Ascending  Dissonancea, 
Part  IX. 


HARMOISTT  AND  COMPOSITION. 


Ex.  195. 

Simple 
Melody. 


Soprano, 
Alto. 


Fund.  Bass. 


171 


Andante,  i 


!=)= 


t 1- 


^..:g^.x_r:a^i-i_^UJ.-J^^ 


Bar  5.  Observe  the  Imitation  between  the  soprano  and  alto,  produced  by  passing  notes  of 
half  a  tone. 

Bar  9.    See  also  these  passiw/  notes  converted  into  notes  of  modulation. 

It  is  presumed  that  sufficient  has  been  said  to  shovp  the  nature,  character,  and 
mode  of  treatment  of  simple  passing  notes.  But  should  the  pupil  repeat  the  ques- 
tion, "  Mliat  are  pasalng  notes  f'  They  are  notes  ivJiich  2>ass  immediately  and 
directly  betiveen  the  intervals  of  a  melody.  This  must  be  kept  in  mind,  at  the  jiresent 
moment,  most  carefully:  because  w^e  shall  now  introduce  notes  of  embellishment 
which  DO  NOT  pass  between  the  intervals  of  a  melody,  and  which,  consequently,  are 
NOT  PASSING  notes,  though  bearing  a  strong  resemblance  to  them;  they  are 
employed  as  substitutes,  when  passing  notes  cannot  be  introduced.  For  this 
reason,  we  shall  call  them 

Auxiliary  Notes. 

When  these  auxiliary  notes  are  skilfully  and  judiciously  interwoven  with 
passin'j  notes,  they  form  the  (/roups  of  notes  usually  called  "■  passanes''''  which,  from 
th.(i\v  peculiar  form  and  character,  become  so  impressed  upon  the  mind,  that,  when 
they  reappear  in  some  other  parts  of  the  harmony,  they  are  immediately  recognized. 
When  a.  passage,  thus  remarkable,  is  heard  in  one  part  of  the  harmony,  and 
repeated  in  another,  it  is  called  Imitation.* 

*  Some  of  the  greatest  beauties  and  most  thrilling  effects  in  comijosition  are  produced  by 
imitation.  This  is  a  branch  of  the  art  which  young  composers  should  endeavor  to  attain  as  soou 
as  possible ;  it  is  particularly  important  to  those  who  study  fugues  and  canons. 


172 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 


It  will  be  observed,  although  simple  passing  notes  thus  f^ ve  to  the  melody  a 
more  graceful  and  Jfoiinng  progression,  and  a  decided  and  marked  character,'^  that, 
nevertheless,  without  the  aid  of  auxiliary  notes,  we  should  still  fall  very  short  of 
effecting  our  purpose ;  namely,  of  constructing  the  best  passages  for  imitation.  In 
order,  therefore,  that  we  may  form  a  correct  idea  of  the  nature  and  usefulness  of 
these  notes  of  embellishment,  let  us  supjjose  a  note  repeated,  as  at  I  iu  the  follow- 
ing example  :  — 


Ex.  196.  ( 


-•• — ^s — •- 


Auxiliary  Notes 
from  below. 


"■  ililiS 


3 


Auxiliary  Notes 
from  aoove. 


=^: 


Accented  from 
below. 


N.B.    These  notes  are  introduced  in  an  exercise  on  modulation  and  progression,  page  70. 

In  this  repetition  of  the  same  sound  there  is  nothing  to  excite  attention  or 
interest;  all  is  monotony;  but  let  them  be  written  as  at  II,  and  immediately  a 
degree  of  animation  is  imparted  to  them.  A  passage  appears  exceedingly  simple, 
it  is  true;  but  as  the  peculiar  form  of  it  may  easily  be  recognized,  it  is  fit  for 
imitation.  This  has  been  effected  by  the  auxiliary  note,  F-sharp;  and  as  this  note 
is  written  below  the  essential  note,  we  shall  call  it  an 

Auxiliary  Note  from  below. 
When  written  above  the  essential  note  (as  at  2),  it  will  then  be  an 

Auxiliary  Note  from  above. 

N.B.  An  auxiliary  note  from  below  ought  to  be  written  a  half-tone  below  the 
essential  note;  when  from  above,  it  may  be  written  a  whole  or  half  tone,  just 
as  the  key  in  which  it  ajipears  may  require. 

The  following  example  of  imitation  is  founded  on  a  single  chord.  The  subject 
(or  passage  for  imitation)  is  formed  out  of  tivo  intervals  of  that  chord;  and  as 
these  proceed  by  3rds,  simple  passing  notes  may  be  introduced :  out  of  these  two 
notes  the  jictssage  at  (6)  is  constructed.  This  passage  we  desire  to  imitate  in  the 
alto;  but,  as  that  part  consists  of  one  note  only,  how  shall  we  effect  our  purpose? 
By  having  recourse  to  auxiliary  notes.  Thus,  the  passage  at  ( 6 )  is  imitated  by 
the  alto  at  (c);  by  the  tenor  at  (d);  by  the  bass  at  (e);  by  the  alto  and  tenor  at  (/); 
and  by  the  tenor  and  bass  at  (g).  At  d,  /,  and  g,  the  imitation  is  by  contrary 
motion. 


Tenor, 
Bass. 


Imitation. 


See  Examples  189  to  l'.)5. 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 


173 


fc=^ 


^:*^^^^^^^, 


r 


I     I     I     I    M 


^ 


I^^J^jlt^ 


-TfrYT 


A, 


SSS? — I n — W55 — 


I  ':  T|  1  !  I  I 


1 


rt*^*:f^&n^= 


N.B.    I>et  the  pupil  look  well  to  the  the  various  exauiples  here  giveu.    rreeept  may  do 
much ;  hut  on(!  short  exmnj)le  will  effect  more  thau  pages  of  verhal  explanation. 

The  subject  of  the  following  example  is  the  ascenrlinj?  diatonic  scale  in  four 
parts.  One  interval  only  of  the  chord  being  selected  to  form  the  passage  for 
imitation. 

Passages  constructed  on  Auxiliary  Notes. 
Leerati.  ^m^     r^^^""s 


It  will  be  observed  that  the  embellishments  in  the  above  example  proceed  by 
3rds;  they  may  proceed  by  6ths  also,  as  here  exhibited:  — 


At  bar  1,  between  the  soprano  and  alto. 
2, 3,  between  the  alto  and  tenor. 
4.  between  the  bass  and  soprano,  etc. 


174  HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 

All  our  notes  of  erabeilishment  have  heretofore  progressed  either  by  diatonic 
or  chromatic  intervals;  they  shall  now  be  exhibited  in  another  point  of  view.  The 
following  melody  at  I,  bar  1,  ascends  a  5th.  Instead  of  introducing  between  these 
intervals  simple  passing  notes,  we  shall  proceed  from  the  first  note,  C,  at  once  to 
F-sharp,  as  at  II,  bar  1.  These  notes,  because  they  pass  directly  between  the  inter- 
Fals  C  and  G,  are 


Extended  Pa.ssing  Notes. 

Ex.  199.  Simple  Melody. ^ 

I.  "^  "^       "' 


III. 


All  the  notes  marked  ( a)  are  extended  passing  notes. 
((/)  are  simple  passing  notes. 

In  the  above  example,  at  bar  1,  we  see  that,  through  the  extended  passing 
notes,  a  new  feature  or  character  is  imparted  to  the  simple  melody;  this  character 
we  desire  to  carry  through  the  whole  exercise;  but,  as  the  melody,  at  bar  2, 
descends  from  G  to  E,  it  is  clear  that  no  extended  passing  note  can  find  a  place 
there;  an  auxiliary  note  must  therefore  supply  the  deficiency:  these  we  shall 
call 

Extended  Auxiliaky  Notes  from  Below; 

because  they  do  not  pass  to,  hnt  fall  a  semitone  below  the  essential  note. 

At  II,  D-sharp,  in  bar  1,  and  B-natural,  in  bar  2,  as  well  as  all  those  marked 
(5),  are  specimens  of  the  same. 

At  III,  are  introduced  extended  auxiliary  notes  from  above;  because  they 
ascend  above  the  essential  note,  and  then  descend  upon  it  (c). 

N.B.  Carefully  examine  the  notes  of  embellishment,  at  II,  III,  with  the 
simple  melody  at  I,  and  compare  the  different  effects  which  they  are  calculated  to 
produce;  for  let  it  be  remembered,  that  it  is  only  by  hearing  and  remarking  the 
variety  of  effect  of  these,  as  well  as  of  all  the  other  notes  of  embellishment,  that  a  just 
estimate  can  be  formed  of  their  importance.  These  and  the  like  observations  cannot 
be  too  often  impressed  upon  the  pupil's  mind. 

The  almost  infinite  variety  of  modes  in  which  these  notes  of  embellishment 
may  be  employed,  renders  it  nearly  impossible  to  establish  ^xed  and  infallible  rules 
'or  their  introduction  in  every  case  that  may  present  itself. 

The  following  example,  founded  on  a  simple  subject,  or  melody,  with  its 
■iccompanying  harmony,  exhibits  at  one  view  How  all  the  preceding  notes  of 
embellishment  may  be  introduced  effectively:  — 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 


17« 


Ex.  200.  / 


Auxiliary  Notes  from        Extended  Passing  Notes  ((J). Extended  Passing  Notes 

above  (a) .  followed  immediately  by  an 

Extended  Auxiliary  Noie(3). 


From  Haydn's  Creation. 


Extended  Passing,Auxiliary,  Extended  Auxiliary  Notes  from  above 

and  Simple  Passing  Notes(<r).      followed byan  Extended  Auxiliary 

Note  from  ^e/<w(^.  \ 


w 


=^S= 


''^^ 


^ 


m 


Hitherto  our  notes  of  embellishment  have  appeared  in  the  soprano  and  inner 
parts  only;  in  the  following  example  they  are  introduced  into  the  bass. 

Diatonic  Scale  descending. 


Ex.  201. 

I. 


I"-    ite^ 


ES 


Simple  Passing  and  Auxiliary  Notes. 


Simple  and  Extended  Passing  and  Auxiliary  Notes. 


:fe=-- 


s^^s^sr^ 


trTng- 


^^P^g^^ 


^^^3E^S= 


:3ES 


¥ 


^=^-- 


1 


5zz:z  r <2 


^        *»- 


i^^^f 


^^^^^^^^^^ 


176 


BAEMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 


The  two  basses,  I,  II,  although  founded  upon  tlie  same  fundamental  harmony,  yet  diffei 
widely  with  regard  to  their  character,  occasioned  by  the  employment  of  different  notes  of  embel- 
lishment. The  effect  produced  at  I,  arises  out  of  simple  passing  and  auxiUary  notes;  at  II, 
from  extended  passing  and  extended- auxiUary  notes.  And  here  let  it  be  carefully  noticed  that,  in 
order  to  introduce  our  embellishments  at  II,  we  nuist  suppose  that  bass  to  have  been  originally 
written  as  at  III.  where  the  essential  notes  of  the  cliord.  being  introduced  in  succession,  form  not 
only  a  melody,  characteristic  of  the  hass,  which  (as  the  intervals  proceed  at  great  distances)  is 
peculiarly  fitted  for  the  introduction  of  extended  notes  of  embellishment. 

When  the  intervals  of  a  chord  are  introduced,  as  at  III  in  the  preceding  example,  a  species 
of  melody  arises,  the  intervals  of  which  may  be  considered  as  producing  a  two-fold  effect;  that  is, 
as  a  secondary  melody,  and  as  a  secondary  harmony ;  by  the  employment  of  which,  a  harmony  of 
/■fd/r  j(rtr/.s  may  be  made  to  produce  the  effects  of  ^t-e  or  even  more  parts.  This  will  be  better 
understood  by  an  example. 

I.  2.  3.  ^  4.  5.       6. 


At  ( a),  the  harmony  first  appears  as  usual  in  four  parts. 

Bar  1.  The  soprano  ascends  to  G.  and  doubles  the  alto  in  the  octave;  that  is,  the  interval 
representing  the  part  of  the  alto  is  made  to  appear  twice  in  the  same  chord.  This  observation 
may  apply  to  all  the  others. 

Bar  2.  The  soprano  ascends  to  F,  and  doubles  the  inverted  bass;  and  thus  the  harmony  in 
those  two  bars  assumes  the  nature  and  character  oiftve  parts. 

At  bars  3,  4,  six  jxtrts. 

At  5  and  6  is  exhibited  the  real  harmony  of  that  which  has  been  assumed,  the 
latter  of  which  we  shall  call 

Secondary  Harmony: 

and,  although  this  "  secoHcZar?/ harmony "  is  not  all  heard  at  one  and  the  same 
time,  as  at  5,  6,  — nevertheless,  it  will  be  found  to  produce  such  an  impression 
upon  the  ear,  as  strongly  to  resemble  it. 


Ex.  202. 
II. 


■^^^Sf^^ 


g 


^^S^ 


14. 


Jj 


ffFpprFt 


m^^^m^^^mk^^^m^?^^ff^m 


At  bars    7,  8,  the  secondary  harmony  appears  in  the  alto;  it  is  in  6  parts. 

At 9,10, in  the  ^e>ior,     ditto. 

At  ■ 11,  12, in  the  alto  and  bass,  in  7  parts. 

At  -— —  13,  14, — in  the  soprano  and  Uiss,  ditto. 

This  will  suffice  to  show  the  principle  on  wliich  this  secondary  harmony  is 
established. 

It  may  be  observed  that  this  secondary  harmony^  arising  from  the  peculiar 
progression  of  its  intervals,  is  particularly  suited  for  the  employment  of  extended 
notes  of  embellishment.  These  we  shall  now  introduce,  and  exhibit  in  ">  variety 
of  forms. 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 


177 


Let  us  make  one  observation  before  we  proceed.  As  impurity  of  harmony 
must  at  all  times  be  carefully  guarded  against,  and  as  the  introduction  of  second- 
ary harmony  may  easily  lead  into  error  in  this  respect,  care  must  be  taken  that 
the  note  which  is  employed  as  secondary  harmony  returns  first  to  the  original  note  of 
the  chord  from  which  it  started,  before  it  proceeds  to  a  note  of  another  chord. 

The  subject  which  we  have  chosen  for  a  practical  illustration  of  "  secondary 
harmony"  and  "extended  notes  of  embellisment,"  is  the  ascending  diatonic  scale 
of  C  minor,  written  in  the  bass,  and  harmonized. 

4-  5-  6.  7. 


Ex.  203. 


At  bars  1,  2,  the  econdary  harmony  appears  in  the  soprano. 

At 3.  4,  in  the  tenor,  imitating  the  soprano  hy  contrary  motion. 

At 5,  6,  7,  in  the  alto,  imitating  the  tenor,  by  similar  motion. 

Let  not  the  pupil  pass  unnoticed  these  hnitations,  which  have  been  effected  tlirough  the 
instrumentality  of  secondary  harm,omj. 

N.B.    The  first  portion  of  each  bar  contains  the  real  harmony. 

It  will  be  perceived  that  the  introduction  of  secondary  harmony,  in  the  pre- 
ceding example,  has  paved  the  way  fortlie  employment  of  extended  auxiliary  notes 
from  below;  and  thus  a  new  and  altogether  different  effect  is  produced,  and  pas- 
sages formed  for  imitation. 

2.  3.  4. 


Ex.  204. 


If  we  minutely  examine  the  above  exercise,  and  compare  it  with  the  preceding, 
we  shall  find  that  it  was  through  the  introduction  of  extended  auxiliary  notes  from 
below  that  the  soprano  received  the  still  more  marked  and  distinct  character  which 
is  exhibited  at  bars  1,  2,  and  subsequently  imitated  at  bars  3,  4,  by  the  alto.  It 
will  be  perceived  that  the  secondary  harmony,  bar],  descends  from  C  to  G,  and 
our  notes  of  embellishment  are  introduced  accordingly;  that  is,  extended  auxiliary 
notes  from  below. 

In  the  following  example  (observe)  the  notes  of  secondary  liarmony  ascend, 
and  thus  we  are  enabled  to  employ  extended  passing  notes ;  by  which  again  a  neto 
effect  is  produced,  and  a  passage  formed  in  the  soprano  which  is  subsequently 
imitated  by  all  the  other  parts. 

Compare  and  examine  very  carefully  the  following  example  with  the  one 
above : — 


Ex.  203. 


^ 


tusz 


■I 


Tf 


jea^f 


^^m 


l^^i 


*  The  inverted  basses  of  the  above  examples  are  figured,  to  show  that  the  essential  notes 
only  require  to  be  thus  treated. 


178 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 


In  the  following  example,  '^secondary  harmony  "  is  introduced  into  the  bass, 
intermixed  with  various  extended  passing  and  auxiliary  notes. 

The  pupil  is  here  presented  with  two  specimens  of  basses  arising  out  of 
secondary  harmony :  let  him  examine  both  carefully. 


-r-^ 


The  bass,  at  (a),  produced  through  secondary  harmony,  may  be  viewed  as  the 
outline  or  sketch  of  the  following  more  finished  example,  in  which  it  is  again 
introduced,  embellished  with  simple  and  auxiliary  notes:  — 

2.  3-  4-  5- 


Ex.  207 


Observe,  the  diatonic  scale  continues  in  the  bass  until  the  end  of  the  third  bar,  when  tlie 
alto  takes  up  the  subject,  and  continues  it  to  tlie  end  with  the  same  notes  of  embellishment  as 
before. 

Examples  miglit  be  multiplied,  and  pages  of  explanation  written  to  illustrate 
this  interesting  subject;  what  has  been  said,  however,  may  suffice  to  .show,  in 
some  measure,  the  importance  of  these  notes  of  embellishment,  — secondary  har- 
mony, —  their  practical  use,  — and  the  variety  of  effect  which  they  are  calculated 
to  produce;  reflection  and  study  must  complete  the  rest. 

We  shall  now  show  how  dissonances  also  may  be  mixed  up  and  amalgamated 
with  the.se  matters,  so  as  to  produce  new  and  still  more  striking  effects. 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 


179 


We  know  that,  according  to  the  principles  of  '''secondary  harmony,"  we  are 
permitted  to  write  the  tenor  and  soprano  as  at  I,  in  the  following  example.  There- 
fore, on  the  SAME  principle  we  may  resolve  the  dissonances  of  the  4th  and  9th, 
as  at  II. 


3^ 


i 


^ 


Secondary  Harmony 


Dissonances  of  the  4th  and  9th. 


Ex.  208. 


By  keeping  in  view  the  above  principle  (upon  which  the  two  following 
examples  are  constructed),  no  difficulty  can  possibly  arise  in  fully  comprehending 
them. 

First  of  all  —  let  the  pupil  carefully  examine  the  progression  of  the  funda- 
mental basses,  which  are  added  and  figured;  for  upon  this  the  whole  superstruc- 
ture rests. 

Secondly  —  let  him  understand  that  when  the  resolution  of  a  dissonance  is 
delayed,  it  is  occasioned  either  by  a  note  of  secondary  harmony  or  by  an  auxiliary 
note;  and  that  the^rs^  is  an  essential  note,  and  the  latter  is  not. 


Let  us  first  examine  the  progression  of  the  fundamental  basses. 

The  hass,  from  bar  1  to  6  inchisive,  continually  ascends  a  fifth:  tlierefore.  it  admits  the 
introduction  of  tlie  dissonance  of  the  4th  prepared  by  tlie  8th.*  The  bass,  from  bar  6  to  18 
ascends  a  4tli ;  therefore,  it  admits  the  dissonance  of  the  9th.  prepared  by  the  5th,  combined  with 
the  dissonance  of  the  4th,  prepared  by  the  fundamental  7th. t 

Bar  1.    The  dissonance  of  the  4th  is  prepared  in  the  alto  by  tlie  8th. 

*  See  Dissonances,  page  105,  Examples  103,  104,  105.  t  See  Dissonances,  page  106  —  10^ 
Examples  106, 109, 110. 


ISC 


HARMONY  AXD  COMPOSITIOlSr. 


15ar  2.  This  dissonance,  instead  of  directly  resolving  into  a  3rd  (as  it  onght),  first  ascends 
by  a  note  of  secondary  harmony  to  D,  and  resolves  as  usual.  This  process  produces  a  little  sub- 
ject  or  passage,  which,  at  bar  3,  is  imitated  by  the  soprano,  and  at  bar  4  by  the  tenor. 

Bar  5.  Th  is  dissonance  ( the  4th )  appears  again  in  the  alto;  but,  instead  of  pursuing  the 
same  process  as  at  bar  2,  an  auxiliary  note  from  below  (  F-sharp)  is  introduced,  by  which  the 
resolution  of  the  dissonance  is  delayed  (similar  to  bar  2  ),  and  a  new  subject  or  passage  formed, 
which,  at  bar  6,  is  imitated  by  the  soprano. 

Let  it  here  be  kept  in  mind,  that  all  our  imitations,  up  to  the  present,  arose  out  of  the  disso- 
nance of  the  4th  only;  because  the  progressionoi  the  fundamental  basses  was  by  ascendina  fifths. 
Now,  however,  that  progression  is  changed :  the  fundamental  bass  ascends  hy  fouHhs,  and  the 
dissonance  of  the  s)th  is  introduced. 

Bar  7.  The  9th  ( F-sharp )  is  prepared,  in  the  precediw/  bar,  by  the  soprano;  but,  instead  of 
resolving  direct  into  the  octave,  E,  \t  first  descends  to  B  (a  note  of  secondary  harmony),  and 
afterwards  resolves  into  the  octave  as  usual. 

Bar  8.  The  same  dissonance  is  again  introduced ;  but  here  it  ascends,  first.to  F,  a  note  of 
secondary  harmony,  and  then  resolves.  ■ 

Bars  10  and  12.  The  dissonance  of  the  Uh  ( prepared  by  the  fundamental  7th  ),  before  its 
resolution,  descends  first  to  an  auxiliary  note  from  bclou\  and  then  resolves. 

We  give  the  follovping  example  (which  is  introduced  precisely  upon  the  same 
principle  and  upon  the  sa,m.e  fundamental  harmonies  as  the  preceding)  as  a  further 
illustration  of  what  may  be  effected  by  a  "  regular  dissonance,"  "  secondary  har- 
mony," and  various  notes  of  embellishment. 

X.B.  The  present  example  commences  and  ends  in  a  major  key;  the  one 
precediny  commences  and  ends  in  a  minor  key.  Let  the  pupil  practise  well  the 
difference  of  effect. 


Ex.  210. 


Andante. 


^'^-itf^- 


adagio. 


It  may  be  noticed  that,  in  the  former  example  (209),  from  bar  1  to  6,  the  dissonance  of  the 
ftmrth  only  is  introduced.  Here,  however,  we  have  introduced  the  dissonance  of  the  6th  in  co7i- 
function  with  the  fourth. 

Bar  2.    The  6th  appears  in  the  tenor  ( prepared  in  the  preceding  bar  by  the  3rd). 

Bar  3.  This  dissonance  appears  in  the  alto,  coml)ined  with  the  soprano;  bar  4,  In  the 
»oprano,  combined  with  the  tenor;  and  bar  5,  combined  with  the  alto  and  te^ior. 

Bar.  3.  The  bass  proceeds  by  auxiliary  notes,  and  secondary  harmony,  imitated  by  the 
soprano  at  bar  4. 

Bar  5.    The  bass  proceeds  by  simple  passing  notes,  accompanied  by  the  alto. 

Bar  6.    The  bass  is  accompanied  by  the  soprano. 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 


181 


To  extend  our  analysis  is  needless.  Let  the  pupil  (if  anxious  to  make  him- 
self acquainted  with  this  interesting  and  important  subject)  examine  and  aualj^ze 
for  himself,  compariny  example  with  example  —  bab  by  bak.  If  he  do  so,  he  will 
be  amply  recompensed  for  his  labor. 

In  order  to  render  this  subject  still  more  interesting  and  practical,  we  will 
take  a  simple  melody,  harmonize  it,  and  then  arrange  it  for  the  pianoforte,  intro- 
ducing these  notes  of  embellishment,  with  the  usual  marks  of  expression,  to  give 
it  all  the  character  of  a  finished  composition. 

It  is  necessary  to  observe  that,  when  writing  for  the  pianoforte,  we  are  fre- 
quently obliged,  in  order  to  produce  effects  peculiar  to  that  instrument,  to  double 
notes  of  the  harmony;  in  which  case,  the  rule  respecting  consecutive  octaves  is  dis- 
pensed with;  but  they  are  not  permitted  to  occur  between  the  extreme  parts;  that 
is,  between  the  lowest  note  of  the  bass  and  the  highest  note  in  the  treble.  The 
rule  relating  to  consecutive  5ths  remains  in  full  force,  and  must  be  strictly 
observed. 

Andante  maestoso. 


Ex.  211 


*  Chord  of  the  eleventh— to  be  explained  hereafter. 


182 


HARMOXY  AND  COMPOSITION. 


Out  of  the  harmony  of  the  preceding  example  we  give  a  specimen,  in  which  the 

simple  melody  is  preserved,  and  a  variation  extracted  from  the  alto  and  tenor,  with 
secondary  harmony  in  the  bass. 


Ex.  212. 


Andante  sostenuto. 

ten.  ten. 


^S 


aKZD 


^ 


ten. 


'zL'-L^L'-^^L^ 


^^ 


w^^^m 


^^'=='^:^''^^ 

s^. 


Sw" 


§^^3^ 


^- 


7     !     I   ^— t 


r- 


r  5    "*"    ■*• 


g 


ten.        ten. 


'^^-^^^^^^^f^""^^^  g 


-l^-l \—t 


rr 


"■-:^- 


^135^3 


-^_j_ _^. 


I 


fe        I 


s 


i^^rrj-^^ 


-g^'g-^  '^^%-lJ 


f    r      -p^^ 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 


183 


The  following  specimen  exhibits  extended  auxiliary  notes  chiefly   in   the 
bass : — 


Con  anima. 


Ex.  213 


S5^yr:t=*= 


1^ 


i-p-r 


S 


^^^ 
^=^^^ 


b'bj  ; 


^flS^^ES^ 


-«* 


The  variations  shown  in  the  above  specimens  are  extracted  from  the  bac»s  and 
inner  parts  of  the  harmony;  and  the  melody  itself  is  never  absent,  but,  on  the  con- 
trary, sustains  a  very  prominent  part. 

Variations,  however,  are  often  composed  on  the  harmony  alone  with  which  a 
melody  is  accompanied,  the  melody  itself  being  absent  (though  still  in  existence). 
In  this  case,  it  is  necessary  that  the  same  harmony,  the  satne  modulation,  and  even 
the  same  inverted  basses,  with  which  the  melody  was  oriyinally  accompanied, 
should  be  retained;  no  matter  under  what  form  the  passages  may  appear. 

These  observations  have  reference  only  to  variations  constructed  on  a  simple 
melody.  In  a  word  —  a  variation  written  according  to  tliis  rule  will  always 
permit  the  original  melody  to  be  played  with  it,  without  either  injury  to  the 
purity  of  the  harmony,  or  interference  with  the  passages  of  which  the  variation 
is  composed. 


184 


HARMONY  AKD  COMPOSITION. 


The    following    variation,    composed    on    this    principle,    needs    no    further 
comment :  — 


Ex.  214. 


>i»ri»*,(*»^ 


gfep^^ii^^^g^i^ 


We  shall  conclude  this  interesting  subject  with  the  following  example,  which, 
in  its  concise  and  tntrnpressed  form,  may  he  viewed  as  a  nummary  or  recapitulation 
of  what  has  been  stated  in  the  preceding  pages.  This  exercise  is  calculated  to 
impress  upon  the  mind  of  the  i>upil  still  more  forcibly  the  vast  importaiice  of  these 
notes  of  embellishment,  as  well  as  the  extent  to  which,  by  judicious  treatment, 
they  may  be  introduced  amongst  the  intervals  of  melodies,  and  the  influence  they 
exercise  in  a  composition. 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 


185 


The  melody  at  I,  in  the  following  example,  consists  of  three  notes  only  —  E,  C, 
B,  accompanied  by  the  harmony  of  the  tonic  and  dominant  and  their  inversions. 
At  III  is  the  cadence,  which  concludes  the  whole.  It  will  be  perceived,  that  as 
the  four  parts  at  II  may,  through  the  instrumentality  of  extended  harmony,  inter- 
change places  among  themselves,  a  door  is  opened  for  the  introduction  of  notes 
of  embellishment,  producing  imitations  in  all  these  parts.  It  is  needless  to  say 
more  on  this  subject;  the  example  is  before  the  pupil,  let  him  study  it  with  care  and 
attention  —  It  is  one  of  importance. 

We  shall  suppose  the  example  to  be  written  for  the  first  and  second  violins, 
tenor,  and  bass. 


Ex.  215 


J 


^^=F^ 


III. 


Subject. 


In  four  parts.  1 


"r~T 


n 


*=^=^^=^=^^^^*=t 


Ej^3^-=p 


P5I.1 


1 


Cadence. 


-!*—•- 


.     ^    y_,<q pny 


r   r 


186 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION, 


^.-^s-J^ 


^:^  j_   JjSJ^J 


P^ 


zff^fzt^gS 


We  shall  only  further  remark,  that  if  the  ijujjil  has  carefully  studied  the 
present  subject,  he  cannot  help  being  struck  with  the  endless  variety  which  these 
notes  of  embellishment  are  calculated  to  produce.  The  best  advice  that  can  be 
given,  is  to  examine  the  works  of  the  most  classical  composers,  and  oljserve  how 
they  have  treated  the  same  subject  on  different  occasions.  In  writing  the  exer- 
cises, let  the  harmony  be  written  in  four  parts  before  a  single  note  of  embellish- 
ment is  introduced,  which  will  prevent  many  errors. 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 


RETARDATION, 

OR 

AsoE]S"DiiirG  disso:n"a:nces 


II. 


Ex.  216. 


P 


^ 


^B=--tf=^^FF^^^ 


Descending  Dissonances,  or  Suspension.        Ascending  Dissonances,  or  Retardation. 


It  has  been  shown,*  that  when  an  interval  of  a  choi'd  in  a  gradually  descend- 
ing melody  is  kept  back  in  its  progression,  it  produces  a  Dissonance,  called  a 
dissonance  by  Suspension. 

However,  a  melody  may  ascend  as  well  as  descend ;  and  when  an  interval  of  a 
chord  in  a  gradually  ascending  melody  is  arrested  in  its  course,  it  also  produces  a 
Dissonance ;  but  this  we  call  an  ascending  Dissonance,  or  Retardation. 

Here,  then,  we  have  two  species  of  Dissonances:  Suspensions  and  Retardations, 
widely  differing  from  each  other  as  regards  their  construction  and  effect. 


In    a  descending  { 

melody  the  )  4th  suspends  the  3rd. 


(ith 
9th 


5th. 
8th. 


In  an  ascending 
melody  the 


II. 


2nd   retards  the   3rd. 

4th 5th. 

7th 8th. 


We  know  that  when  the  dominant  chord  proceeds  to  the  tonic,  the  3rd  ascends 
directly  to  the  octave  of  that  tonic;  as  at  I  in  the  following  Ex.t  :  — 


Ex.  217. 


But  suppose  B,  the  3rd  of  the  dominant  chord,  instead  of  proceeding  direct  to 
the  octave  (as  at  I),  to  be  continued  upon  the  following  tonic  (as  at  II)  it  becomes 
an  ascending  dissonance;  (the  7th),  which  must  afterwards  ascend  or  resolve  into 
the  octave  of  the  tonic.  At  III,  the  remaining  notes  of  the  tonic  chord  are  added, 
and  thus  form  a  chord  (usually  called  the  chord  of  the  sfiarji  srr<'rith). 

*  Example  99. 
t  The  above  may  be  considered  as  an  epitome  of  all  Artificial  /-»?ssonn»ices  —  artificial, 
because  they  are  not  found  in  nature,  as  is  the  fundamental  7th.    Re-peruse  what  has  been  said, 
page  109. 

(187) 


188 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 


Ex.  217- 


If,  in  this  ascending  pi'Ogi'ession,  the  5th  of  the  dominant  (D),  instead  of 
ascending  to  the  3rd  of  the  tonic  (as  at  IV),  be  continued  (as  at  V),  it  pro- 
duces the  ascending  dissonance  of  the  2nd  resolving  into  the  3rd.  If  this  dis- 
sonance of  the  2nd  (at  Y)  he  combined  with  the  7th  (as  at  YI ),  it  produces  the 
chord  of  the  l. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  same  note  (D),  which  in  an  ascendin;/  melody  (as 
at  Y)  is  a  retardation,  may  in  a  descending  melody  (IX)  become  a  dissonance 
by  suspetision.  To  ascertain  to  whicli  species  it  belongs,  it  is  only  necessary  to 
examine  its  progression;  if  it  ascends  (as  at  Y),  it  is  a  retardation  (2nd  into  the 
3rd);  if  it  descends  (as  at  IX).  it  is  a  suspension  (9th  into  the  8th). 

Having  fully  explained  the  nature  oi^sii.Kpension  and  retardation,  we  proceed  to 
the  dissonance  of  the  4th  into  the  5th,  which  is  not  quite  so  satisfactory,  in  its 
effect,  as  the  two  preceding  ones,  occasioned  by  an  ambiguity  as  to  its  final  reso- 
lution: it  is  impossible  to  decide  whether  it  is  a  dissonance  by  suspension  or 
retardation  until  the  resolution  has  taken  place  (as  at  X);  the  4tli  appears  in  tlie 
soprano,  which  (as  a  suspension)  we  know  cannot  be  admitted,  because  the  3rd  of 
the  chord  is  in  the  tenor;  and,  as  a  retardation,  the  matter  is  exceedingly  doubtful; 
therefore,  in  order  to  prevent  this  ambiguity  in  the  resolution  of  the  chord,  the 
dissonance  (the  4th)  is  frequently  raised  a  minor  half-tone,  as  at  I  in  the  following 
example:  — 


Ex.  2i8. 


"■] 


5± 


J=J= 


II. 


3^ 


1 


m^ 


by  which  its  ascending  resolution  is  anticipated,  and  all  doubts  respecting  its 
identity  removed. 

In  like  manner,  the  retardation  of  the  2nd  may  be  raised  a  semitone,  and  thus 
a  similar  ambiguity  as  respects  the  nature  of  tliat  dissonance  is  avoided;  for  when 
tlie  2nd  is  raised  a  half-tone  (as  at  II),  it  is  impossible  to  mistake  it  for  a  disso- 
nance of  tlie  9th. 

A  very  important  rule,  with  reference  to  the  employment  of  dissonances  and 
preservation  of  the  purity  of  the  harmony,  should,  on  the  present  occasion,  be 
recalled  to  mind;  viz.,  "  that  a  dissonance  and  the  note  which  that  dissonance  sus- 
pends, must  not  be  heard  at  one  and  the  same  time;  a  dissonance  is  the  temporary 
representation  of  the  consonance  into  which  it  subsequently  resolves. 


Ex.  219. 


HARMONY   AND   COMPOSITION. 


189 


In  bar  2,  the  C-sharp  retards  I),  the  5th  in  the  soprano:  therefore  the  D  in  the 
tenor  cannot  be  admitted.  Tlie  same  error  occurs  also  in  bar  o,  where  the  D-sliarp 
(the  2nd)  retards  E  (tlie  ord)  in  the  soprano. 

Q.     Can  the  8rd  E  in  the  tenor  be  admitted? — Why  ? 

Both  these  errors  are  avoided  at  bars  4  and  5. 

The  following  example  exliibits  a  practical  illustration  of  ascending  disso- 
nances intermixed  with  jyaxsing  and  auxiliary  noes*:  — 


Ex.  220. 


The  subject  is  the  ascending  Diatonic  Scale,  supposed  to  be  written  for  two 
violins  and  a  bass;  it  commences  with  the  first  violin,  and  is  continued  for  three 
bars,  when  it  is  taken  up  by  the  second  violin,  imitating  the  first  a  fifth  below. 
The  bass  meanwhile  performs  a  melody  of  its  own.  It  is  unnecessary  to  enter 
into  an  analysis  of  the  ascending  dissonances;  the  example  is  purely  practical,  and 
speaks  for  itself. 

We  shall,  in  preference,  give  the  same  example  in /o?(J-  j)urts.^\\7..,  for  two 
violins,  tenor,  and  l)ass.  Here,  more  care  is  recpiired  to  avoid  ambiguities  than 
was  necessarv  in  Ex.  220. 


Ex.  221. 


The  student  will  examine  carefully  and  perform  the  two  examples,  compar- 
ing one  with  the  other,  and  particularly  noticing  the  variety  of  the  imitations. 

In  tlie  latter  example  it  will  be  perceived  that  the  scale  commences  with  the 
\st  violin,  but  is  continued  in  that  part  for  only  three  bars;  after  which  it  is  taken 
up  by  the  second  violin  for  tlie  following  three  bars,  by  which  an  imitation 
between  these  two  parts  is  effected. 

*  Re  peruse  what  has  been  said  on  passiiiK  notes  by  half-tones.  Ex.  192. 


190 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 


It  has  been  fully  shown  that  all  dissonances,  whether  by  suspension  or  retard- 
ation, have  been  produced  by  one  simple  circumstance,  viz.,  by  arresting  the  natural 
progress  of  the  intervals  of  a  melody  while  ascending  or  descending.  These 
dissonances  therefore  are  in  fact  artificial;  they  do  not  exist  in  nature;  but  why 
are  they  introduced?  They  are  introduced  to  heighten  the  effect  of  the  returninf 
consonances,  and  thus  produce  in  a  greater  or  less  degree  that  light  and  shade  in  a 
composition  which  is  so  striking  in  the  works  of  great  masters.  A  careful  study 
of  this  branch  of  harmony  is  strongly  recommended;  indeed,  the  importance  of  it 
must,  ere  this,  have  been  evident  to  every  intellectual  student. 

When  we  treated  on  the  chord  of  the  minor  9th,*  it  became  necessary  to  draw 
particular  attention  to  two  intervals  of  the  chord  of  the  fundamental  7th,  viz.,  the 
3rd  and  7th;  the  former  ascendiny  a  half-tone,  the  latter  descending  a  half-tone  ;t 
by  these  two  intervals  ascending  and  descending  by  half-tones,  the  whole  machin- 
ery of  harmony  is  guided. 

In  order  to  impress  this  strongly  on  the  mind,  we  shall  repeat  here  a  portion 
of  Ex.  141,  the  whole  of  which,  however,  the  pupil  is  strongly  urged  again  to 
peruse. 


Ex. 


m 


\^ 


±-rJ        ^  : 


B= 


5^- 


a.  Exhibits  the  essential  notes  of  the  chord  of  the  fundamental  7th. 

b.  The  ascending  dissonance  of  the  7th.     (Retardation.) 

c.  The  descending  dissonance  of  the  4th.     (Suspension.) 

Now  observe.  If  these  two  opposite  dissonances  are  united  (as  at  d),  they  will 
produce  a  new  chord,  called 

The    Chord    of  the   Eleventh. 

Let  it  be  well  remarked,  that  it  is  through  the  instrumentality  of  these  two 
principal  intervals  of  the  fundamental  7th  that  this  chord  is  produced.  We  may 
introduce  the  dissonance  of  the  9th  also  (as  at  e)t;  but  the  chord  is  not  thereby 
changed,  it  still  remains  the  same  in  name  and  character;  or  we  may  introduce 
a  retardation,  the  2nd  ascending  into  the  3rd  (as  at/).  Here  the  note  which  at 
(e)  is  a  dissonance  by  suspension  (the  9th  into  the  8th),  is  at  (/)  a  retardation, 
the  2nd  into  the  3rd. 

Again,  we  may  have  both  the  suspension  and  retardation  at  the  same  time 
(as  at  gr),  where  the  2nd  in  the  soprano  ascends  into  the  3rd,  and  the  9th  in  the 
tenor  descends  into  the  8th;  and  if  we  add  the  octave  to  the  dominant,  the  chord 
*  See  preceding.  t  See  example  141.  t  Example  217,  IX. 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 


191 


of  the  11th  will  appear  (as  at  h).  If  the  question  be  asked,  what  the  chord  of  the 
11th  really  is,  the  reply  is  simply,  The  chord  of  the  dominant  or  fmidamentallth 
placed  over  its  tonic  :  for  instance,  take  the  bass-note  B-flat  as  the  tonic,  (the  domi- 
nant of  B-flat  is  F),  write  the  chord  of  F,  with  its  fundamantal  7th,  over  the  B-fiat, 
and  the  chord  of  the  11th  is  produced:  its  resolution  follows  as  a  matter  of 
course. 

Why  is  this  called  the  chord  of  the  11th?  The  chord  takes  its  name  from  the 
dissonance  of  the  4th,  prepared  by  the  7th,*  because  this  4th  is  the  11th  interval, 
counting  upwards,  from  any  given  bass.  In  thus  counting  upwards,  we  must 
necessarily  pass  beyond  the  7th  and  9th,  before  we  can  arrive  at  the  note  which 
constitutes  the  11th;  so  that,  in  this  case,  the  interval  in  question  is  not  a  4th,  but 
really  and  truly  an  11th. 

Chord  of  the  Eleventh,  prepared. 

Hitherto,  the  chord  of  the  11th  has  appeared  on  the  accented  part  of  the  bar, 
having  been  prepared  on  the  unaccented;  but  this  is  not  necessarily  the  case;  as  it 
originates  in  the  chord  of  the  fundamental  7th,  which  requires  no  preparation,  so 
the  chord  of  the  11th  is  entitled  to  the  same  privilege:  this  is  exhibited  in  the  fol- 
lowing example,  where  all  the  chords  of  the  11th  are  unprepared. 


Ex.  223. 


Chord  of  the  Eleventh  unprepared. 
1.  ,2.^,        .,  ,3. 

-J ?J 5J-.-J. 


-1-    ^- 


^F==P 


-J-^.^ 
-*^ 


-'^^^- 


fe 


-?4- 


n. 


bl 


:=1=^ 


^^^ 


In  bars  1  and  2  the  melody  ascends ;  consequently,  the  retardation  of  the  2nd 
is  introduced,  figured  with  a  (2  thus,  VS ;  but  as,  at  bars  3  and  4,  the  melody 
descends,  the  supension  of  the  9th  is  employed,  and  the  figures  required  are  ?:>  §  ; 
the  chord  of  the  11th  may  therefore  be  introduced,  prepared,  as  in  Ex.  222;  or 
unprepared,  as  in  Ex.  223. 

The  following  is  a  practical  illustration  of  this  chord  with  both  these  charac- 
teristics: — 

The  Chord  of  the  Eleventh  practically  illustrated. 


Andante  sostenuto. 


crescendo. 


Ex.  224. 


rinf. 


Bar  2.  Bar  5T  Bar  57  Bar  8. 

In  the  preceding  Ex.  all  notes  of  embellishment  have  been  carefully  avoided, 
and  other  dissonances  excluded,  that  this  chord  may  appear  in  the  simplest  pos- 
sible form.t 

*  See  i,  Ex.  222. 
•     t  III  Examples  224  and  225,  bars  2,  5,  6, 1.3,  the  chord  of  the  lltli  is  unprepared. 
Bars  H,  10,  12,  16 prepared. 


192 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 


N.B.  When  the  chord  of  the  11th  is  employed  unprepared,  and  the  melody 
ascends,  the  note  which  represents  the  fundamental  7th  may  ascend. 

At  bar  5,  the  fundamental  7th  asrends  in  the  alto,  and  at  bar  6  it  ascends  in 

the  tenor. 

The  following  Example  is  in  substance  the  same  as  the  preceding;  but  here  it 
IS  embellished  with  passing  and  auxiliary  notes;  and  the  student  will  be  amply 
repaid  for  the  trouble  of  a  careful  comparison :  — 


The  same  Air  as  the  preceding  embellished. 
Andante.  Bar  lo. 


Bar  12. 


Ex.  225.  / 


^^EM^^^^^h^=^^^ 


Bar  16. 


Take  this  as  a  general  observation  on  the  figuring  of  this  chord  of  the  11th. 

The  third  and  the  7th  of  the  dominant  chord  are  its  essential  intervals.  Now, 
In  the  chord  of  the  11th,  these  two  intervals  become  the  4th  and  7th,  which 
must  always,  without  exception,  be  figured;  they  must  never  be  omitted. 

The  various  modes  of  figuring  according  to  circumstances.  Mill  appear  thns; 
commencing  with  the  chord  of  the  sharp  7th,  as  that  chord  naturally  leads  to  the 
chord  of  the  11th.* 

Chord  of    the   sharp   7th  —  figured   7,  and  resolved  into  8* 


Same  chord  when  the  2nd  is  added. 
Chord  of  the  11th figured, 

Same  chord  with  the  9th  added  .  .  . 


7 
2 
7 
4 
8 
9 
7 
4 
7 

Ditto  when  the  2nd  is  added 4 

2 

When  the  chord  of  the  11th  appears  9 
with  all  its  suspensions  and  retard-  7 

ations,  it  is  figured 4 

2 


8t 

8 
3t 


3 

811 

3 

8 


•  Ex.  222,  b.        t  Ex.  222,  /.        t  Ex.  222,  d.        §  Ex.  222,  e.        II  Ex,  222,/. 


■   311 
t  Ex.  222,  ff. 


HARMOI^nr  AND  COMPOSITION. 


193 


And  whether  we  remove  the  9th  or  the  2nd,  or  both  figures,  the  chord  still 
remains  the  chord  of  the  11th.  This  may  suffice  to  show  the  nature  and  prac- 
tical application  of  this  important  chord,  and  its  derivation  from  the  chord  of  the 
fundamental  7th,  which  is  derived  from  nature.* 

It  will  be  perceived,  that,  when  the  chord  of  the  lltli  is  introduced  unpre- 
pared, as  at  a,  in  the  following  example,  the  original  fundamental  bass  ascends  a 
fifth;  and  as  that  progression  admits  the  introduction  of  the  4th  into  the  ord,  and 
6th  into  the  5th,t  it  follows  that  either  of  these  dissonances  may  very  effectively 
be  combined  with  the  chord  of  the  11th. 


Ex.  226. 


Allegro  con  agitato,  b. 


Ex.  227. 


In  the  preceding  Ex.  227,  at  6,  the  dissonance  of  the  6th  is  combined  witli  the 
chord  of  the  11th;  and  at  c,  the  dissonance  of  the  4th.  The  introduction  of  the 
dissonances  thus  gives  rise  to  a  very  extraordinary  anomaly,  viz.,  dissonances 
becoming  consonances  and  resolving  into  dissonances.     For  instance : 

At  6,  in  the  above  example,  the  6th  united  with  the  chord  of  the  11th,  forms 
with  the  bass  a  consonance,  and  this  resolves  into  a  dissonance  (the  i)th). 

At  c,  the  dissonance  of  the  4th  from  the  octave  of  the  bass,  resolves  into  a 
dissonance  (the  7th). 

The  following  is  a  melody  harmonized  in  four  parts,  in  which  are  introduced 
both  the  above-mentioned  dissonances  upon  the  chord  of  the  1 1th. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  expatiate  upon  this  example.  The  student  must  hear  it 
and  particuharly  observe  the  difference  of  effect  produced  by  the  6th  and  4th  com- 
bined with  the  11th. 


Ex.228. 


Andante  con  espress. 

4 


I    -  ^   J    a  J 


rinf. 


M 


m 


g:, 


r^^ 


~^m 


•  Ex.  48.  Harmonics. 


t  Dissonances,  page  112. 


194 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 


r     I   U   I   I   i:      r  r     1^  •  * —  ?=^v^- 

>  .-  I'll  IS !^ 


f?^?* 


At  a,  dissonance  of  the  6th.     At  ft,  dissonance  of  the  4th.     At  c, 

Chord  of  the  Thirteenth. 

The  construction  of  the  chord  of  the  13th  is  in  every  respect  similar  to  that  of 
the  11th. 

Bj'  placing  tlie  chord  of  the  9th  (whether  major  or  minor)  over  its  tonic  bass, 
the  chord  of  the  13tli  will  be  produced. 

In  the  following  example,  bar  1,  is  exhibited  the  chord  of  the  major  9th,  and  at 
bar  4  the  chord  of  the  minor  9th;  at  bars  2  and  5,  these  chords  are  placed  over  their 
respective  tonics,  and  thus  produce  the  chord  of  the  13th;  as  the  figure  4  in 
the  chord  of  the  11th  expresses  the  original  interval,  which  gives  name  to  the 
chord  (viz.,  the  11th),  so  the  figure  6,  as  it  expresses  the  original  interval  (the 
13th),  is  indispensable  when  we  desire  to  express  by  figures  the  chord  of  the  13th. 
Nor  must  the  4th  be  omitted,  because  that  interval  is  the  representative  of  the 
nth,  as  the  6th  is  the  representative  of  the  13th;  this  will  be  seen  in  the  following 
example :  — 


1. 


.5. 


6. 


Ex.  229. 


« 


tt7 


w 


■  Indeed,  if  the  chord  of  the  11th  be  well  understood,  no  difficulty  can  possibly 
be  experienced  in  comprehending  that  of  the  13tli.  Examples  illustrative  of  this 
subject,  if  carefully  studied  and  examined  by  the  student,  must  ever  be  the  com- 
pass by  which  he  will  be  guided  unerringly  through  all  the  mazes  of  harmony: 
however,  a  treatise  such  as  the  present  professes  to  be,  can  never  be  comparatively 
useful  without  abundant  examples,  one  of  which  sometimes  effects  more  to  illus 
trate  the  subject  than  pages  of  words. 

That  the  chords  of  the  11th  and   13th    arise  out  of  a  combination  of  disso- 
nances by  suspension  and  retardation,  will  be  seen  by  the  following:  — 


tix.  230. 


HARMONY  AND   COMPOSITION. 
At  1,  are  two  suspensions,  «  |  ori|inal  9  |  ,^^^^  ^^^  retardations,  ^  |  ^jg^^J  ^  | . 


At  2,  are  three  suspensions,  6,  and  one  retardation,  the  Ith. 

4 

At  3,  are  three  suspensions,  6,  and  two  retardations,  ^  \  Qj^-Jf  jn^l  5  [  * 

N.B,  When  the  chord  of  the  13th  is  immediately  preceded  by  the  chord  of 
the  fundamental  9th  (as  in  the  above  Example),  the  cliord  is  prepared.  When  it 
is  not  immediately  preceded  by  the  fundamental  9th  (as  in  the  following  Example), 
then  it  is  unprepared,  and  may  be  treated  precisely  as  the  chord  of  the  11th. 


Ex.  231. 


EI^E 


=^g= 


5^ 


^: 


=1^ 


The  preceding  Ex.  231  is  tlie  Diatonic  Minor  Scale  of  C ;  but,  in  order  to  mark 
the  interval  of  the  chord  of  the  13th  as  much  as  possible,  no  signature  is 
employed  to  denote  the  key;  the  accidentals  are  all  expressed  where  required;  the 
fundamental  basses  are  also  added,  which  may  be  found  useful  in  more  respects 
than  one. 

Before  we  proceed  to  give  a  lengthened  example  on  the  employment  of  this 
very  important  chord  (the  13th),  it  will  be  found  necessary  to  make  the  student 
acquainted  with  the  chords  of  the  sharp  sixth  and  compound  sharp  sixth. 

Q.     What  is  the  chord  of  the  sharp  sixth  (tQ)? 

A.  It  is  neither  more  nor  less  than  the  second  inversion  of  the  dominant 
chord,  the  inverted  bass  being  lowered  a  minor  semitone. 

In  the  following  Example  (at  a)  is  exhibited  simply  the  2nd  inversion  of  the 
chord  of  the  dominant:  — 


Ex.  232. 


Let  us  not  forget  that  A-sharp  is  the  natural  sixth  to  the  inverted  bass 
C-sharp  ;*  but  the  instant  we  place  a  natural  before  the  bass  note  C-sharp,  we 
lower  that  note  a  half-tone,  and  A-sharp  is  now  changed  (as  at  b)  into  sharp  6. 
F-sharp,  the  fundamental  bass  remains  unchanged. 

Having  now  fully  explained  the  principle  on  which  this  chord  is  founded,  we 
will  point  out  some  pecviliarities  respecting  it,  which  will  be  found  interesting. 

If  we  analyze  this  chord,  we  shall  find  that  it  contains  within  itself  the  prin- 
cipal intervals  of  two  distinct  fundamental  7thst  (see  c  d);  the  former  would  lead 
the  ear  to  the  key  of  B-natural,  and  the  latter  to  the  key  of  G;  but  when  heard 


*  The  key  of  A  requiring  3  sharps.  F-sharp  is  the  natural  6th. 


t  Ex.  141. 


196 


HARMONY   AND   COMPOSITION. 


both  together,  (as  at  6),  the  chord  produces  on  the  ear  an  effect  not  at  all  satisfac- 
tory. Every  one  may  convince  himself  of  this  by  striking  the  chord  first  as  at 
(a),  and  then  as  at  (h).  To  avoid  this  ambiguity,  one  of  the  intervals  must  be 
removed  —  but,  which  of  them?* 

The  note  A-sharp  cannot  be  dispensed  with,  because  it  is  the  principal  interval 
in  the  dominant  chord,  viz.,  the  ^Jrdt.  E  cannot  be  removed  because  it  is  the  fun- 
damental 7th.  The  only  interval,  therefore,  that  can  be  dispensed  with  is  the 
F-sharp,  the  octave  to  the  fundamental  bass.  Let  us  take  away  this  interval,  and, 
in  order  to  i)reserve  the  four  parts  complete,  double  the  fundamental  7th  (as  at  e), 
and  all  will  be  then  correct. 

We  shall  now  give  a  few  hints  respecting  the  proper  management  of  this  chord 
(the  sharp  sixth)  in  its  different  aspects. 


Ex.  233. 


When  the  chord  appears  as  at  1  in  the  following  example,  the  7th  in  the 
soprano  must  descend  and  tlie  tenor  ascend. 

Should  the  7th  be  doubled  in  the  alto  and  tenor  in  unison,  the  alto  must 
ascend  and  the  tenor  descend  (as  at  2). 

Should  the  7th  be  doubled  in  octaves  (as  at  3),  then  the  alto  must  descend,  and 
the  tenor  ascend. 

This  chord  is  frequently  written  as  at  4  and  5,  by  the  old  church  writers,  and 
produces  a  very  fine  effect. 

The  most  proper  place  for  the  introduction  of  the  sharp  (J  is  when  we  are  in 
a  minor  key,  and  desire  to  modulate  to  the  dominant  of  that  minor  key;  as  in  the 
following  example :  — 


Fx.  234. 


2. 


^- 


=»= 


1^ 


-bss- 


±1. 


31E 


=1^ 


:^»= 


i 


Here  we  are  in  the  key  of  C  minor  —  we  desire  to  modulate  to  G  (the  domi- 
nant) by  the|f6.  This  we  do  in  the  usual  simple  way  by  the  2nd  inversion;  and, 
having  lowered  the  inverted  bass  a  half-tone,  resolve  the  chord. 

At  2,  having  modulated  to  G,  from  hence  we  proceed  to  F  minor,  and  (by  the 
sharp  6)  to  C.  This  will  suffice  to  show  the  origin  and  construction  of  this  chord, 
and  its  principal  use  in  modulation. 

The  contemplation  of  the  chord  of  sharp  0  naturally  leads  us  to  another  of 
still  greater  importance;  and  if  the  former  have  been  well  understood,  not  the 
slightest  difficulty  will  occur  in  fully  comprehending  this  one  also,  because  both 
are  founded  upon  the  same  principle. 


•  Ex,  232,  a. 


t  Sometimes  called  the  Leading  Note. 


HARMONY  AND   COMPOSITION. 


197 


If  to  the  chord  of  the  sharp  sixth  we  add  the  minor  9th,  it  will  produce  what 
we  call 

The  Compound  Sharp  Sixth  figured,  ?-. 

The  following  example  (at  1)  exnibits  the  chord  of  the  sharp  6  as  usual,  with 
its  resolution. 

At  2,  the  minor  9th,  E-flat,  is  added. 

Let  the  student  carefully  remark  that  i}0  radical  change  has  been  made  —  the 
intervals  proceed  just  as  before  —  the  fundamental  bass  is  the  same;  in  one  word, 
the  chord  of  the  compound  sharp  (5  is  nothing  more  than  the  2nd  inversion  of  the 
chord  of  the  minor  9th,  with  the  inverted  bass  lowered  a  semitone. 


Ex.  235, 


It  is  necessary  to  observe  that,  as  the  bass  in  this  chord  (at  2)  is  obliged  to 
descend  a  half-tone,  and  as  the  9th  (which  here  by  inversion  becomes  the  5th) 
must  also  descend,  consecutive  5ths  would  be  the  consequence;  but  these 
improper  progressions  must  be  avoided,  which  is  very  easily  done,  either  by  letting 
the  9th  descend  to  the  7th  in  the  same  bar  (see  3),  or  by  suspending  the  following 
5th  by  means  of  the  6th*  (see  4). 

This  chord,  one  of  the  most  viseful,  especially  in  modulating,  has  been  treated 
in  a  variety  of  ways  by  different  authors;  which  diversity  of  opinion  need  not 
in  the  least  surprise  us,  as  it  arises  from  an  ambiguity  in  the  cliord  itself.  It  is 
not  easy  to  convey  exactly  what  we  mean  here  by  mere  words;  we  shall  be  better 
understood  by  a  practical  example,  thus:  strike  the  chord  at  1  (in  the  following 
Example  236),  without  being  preceded  or  succeeded  by  any  other  chord;  then  the 
chord  at  2.  There  is  no  difference  between  these  two  chords,  as  far  as  can  be 
judged  of  by  the  ear;  yet,  grammatically,  they  differ  as  widely  as  the  east 
and  west. 

How  are  we  to  distinguish  the  difference? 

Answer.  —  By  investigating  the  progression  of  the  fundamental  bass.  It  is 
only  thus  that  we  can  discover  the  etymology  of  any  chord,  and  its  grammatical 
application. 

Let  us  examine  the  two  chords  jusi  heard,  but  not  seen. 


Ex.  236. 


At  1,  G-sharp  and  D  are  the  principal  intervals  of  the  fundamental  7th,  indica- 
ting (as  thus  written)  that  it  is  derived  from  the  chord  of  the  minor  9th.  E,  there- 
fore, is  its  proper  fundamental  bass,  and  thus  the  modulation  proceeds  to  A.  See 
4,  235. 

*  Haydn  has  employed  the  latter  mode.    Cherubiiii,  however,  in  one  of  liis  late  Church  com- 
positions, has,  without  any  scruple,  permitted  these  consecutive  5ths  (as  at  2). 


198 


HARMONY  AND   COMPOSITION. 


At  2,  the  A-flat  and  D,  on  the  same  principle,  indicate  that  it  is  the  chord  of 
tne  fundamental  7th  to  B-tiat;  the  modulation  therefore  goes  to  E-flat;  which  is  a 
key  diarK.etrically  oj^posite  to  the  former.  Very  striking  effects  are  produced  by 
the  employment  of  this  chord,  of  which  some  specimens  will  be  exhibited  when 
we  arrive  at  Equivocal  Modulations. 

We  shall  now  give  a  short  exercise  on  the  two  preceding  chords,  which,  from 
what  has  been  so  fully  stated  respecting  their  nature  and  application,  will  require  no 
further  explanation,  particularly  as  the  fundamental  basses  are  uniformly  added. 


Ex.  236. 


^E^E=|EE|^ 


:!*: 


^ 


^^^^i^^g>^^^^j>j 


P: 


4=1= 


dsf^ 


^ 


:tt^= 


_j__^_j. 


^^^1^ 


We  shall  only  remark  that  at  bar  2,  E-fiat  (the  5th),  instead  of  descending  to 
the  5t]i  in  the  3rd  bar  (which  would  have  produced  consecvitive  5ths),  is  suspended 
at  bar  3  by  the  6th.  The  6th,  however,  is  here  changed  into  the  major,  which 
produces  a  striking  effect. 

Bar  8,  chord  of  the  sharp  6.     Bar  4,  compound  sharp  sixth  f  . 

Bar  0,  compound  sharp  6,  which  resolves  at  bar  10  into  a  major  chord  (see 
bars  2,  3. ) 

We  shall  now  resume  the  svibject  of  the  chord  of  the  13th,  which  was  inter- 
rupted after  Ex.  231,  for  the  purpose  of  introducing  the  pupil  to  the  sharp  6  and 
compound  sharp  6th  *5 . 

The  following  lengthened  example  contains  the  chords  of  the  11th  and  13th  — 
sharp  6th  and  compound  sharp  t^  in  a  variety  of  forms,  incorporated  with  other 
harmonies,  so  as  to  constitute  what  may  be  called  a  finished  composition.  Before 
the  student  plays  it  (and  it  is  expected  that  he  will  do  so),  lie  should  study  the 
subject  well,  by  critically  examining  every  bar.  It  is  written  for  the  pianoforte, 
with  an  additional  staff  for  the  figured  and  fundamental  bass. 

The    subject    is    exceedingly  prolific  in    matter,   and   abounds  in  practical 

illustration. 

e.  r*](/.  , 

Allegro  agitato.  b.  _  ,- — --^         I  |      _    -^J-«J      I 


Ex.  237.  / 


J_J_-|-^J_J. 


I     1 


1 


p      ""^        rhif.  rinf. 


!g" ^ 


m 


HARMONY  AND   COMPOSITION. 


199 


200 


HARMONY   AND   COMPOSITION. 


ANALYSIS. 

At  a,    Chord  of  the  13,  unprepared. 

b.  Chord  of  the  Dissoiuince  of  the  4th  unprepared. 

c.  Chord  of  the  13tli  prepared. 

d.  Chord  of  the  13tli  conii)ound  sharp  (>th  f*p^' 

e.  Chord  of  tlie  13th  prepared. 

/.  Commences  on  the  relative  major  —  cliord  of  the  11th. 

g.  Chord  of  the  11th,  Dissonances  of  the  -tth  added. 

h.  Chord  of  the  I3tli  arising  from  major  9th. 

i.  Chord  of  the  I3tli  followed  by  minor  9th. 

k.    Compound  sharp  Gth  ct 
m.    Chord  of  the  13th,  6th  added.  * 

FINAL   AND   OTHER  CADENCES. 

It  has  already  been  stated  that,  in  consequence  of  the  frequent  natural  occur- 
rence of  the  final  cadence,  composers  have  been  induced  not  only  to  seek  for 
variety,  but  have  often  endeavored  to  avoid  the  final  cadence  altogether. 

A  cadence  is  sometimes  made  in  some  key  different  to  that  into  which  we  had 
modulated;  this  we  call 

An  Irregular  Cadeyice. 

Let  us  suppose  the  student  sitting  at  the  pianoforte,  playing  through  a  course 
of  modulation,  and  introducing  svich  cadences  as  he  is  already  acquainted  with; 
suppose  him  to  have  modulated  to  the  key  of  D,  as  at  (I)  in  the  following 
example:  — 


Ex.  238, 


*  Before  the  student  proceeds,  he  is  strongly  recommended  to  peruse  once  again  the  com- 
mencement of  the  subject  of  cadences  (pages  117, 118) ;  of  which  the  following  may  be  con- 
sidered a  continuation. 


HARMONY   AND   COMPOSITION. 


201 


D  Minor.      IV.        Cad.  in  A  Minor.        Modulation  to  D  Minor.        V.  Cad.  to  B\f  Major. 


In  the  preceding  Ex.  (238)  the  pupil  commences  in  the  key  of  D  major  at  I. 
If,  instead  of  closing  in  that  key,  he  were  to  make  a  cadence  in  the  key  of  its 
dominant,  it  would  be  an  irregular  cadence;  —  irregular — because  it  does  not  close 
in  the  key  to  which  modulation  has  been  made. 

At  II,  he  modulates  to  F  minor,  and  makes  a  cadence  in  the  relative  major. 
At  III,  he  modulates  to  A-flat,  and  makes  a  cadence  in  the  relative  minor. 
At  lY.  D  minor  is  the  key,  and  a  cadence  is  made  in  A  minor. 
At  Y,  a  modulation  to  D  minor  —  cadence  in  B-flat. 

N.B.  Let  it  be  observed  that  the  irregular  cadence  must  always  bear  some 
relation  to  the  key  to  which  we  modulate. 

It  occurs  frequently,  that  instead  of  proceeding  direct  from  the  tonic  to  the 
subdominant,  a  minor  chord  is  first  introduced,  whose  bass,  when  we  are  in  a 
major  key,  is  a  minor  3rd  below  the  tonic,  as  in  the  following  Example  (I).  On 
the  contrary,  when  we  are  in  a  minor  key,  this  bass  must  be  a  major  3rd  below 
the  tonic  (II). 


Ex.  239.  / 


^=;-'« 


w 


5S^ 


T^= 


^- 


-^ — r 


i@=^i=ti^ 


^- 


^=^= 


^ 


^^1 


When  the  cadence  is  made  in    a  minor  key  the  added  sixth  may  be  written 
minor  instead  of  major.     See  III,  following 


Ex,  240. 


1^ 


IV. 


/gE_^_g^^g^gggg5^g^ 


^=iirE-U^_^;^=cj 


^^il^tJ^ 


f= 


HI 


At  lY,  the  added  minor  sixth  is  doubled  and  the  5th  omitted. 

N.B.     This  chord  is  eminently  calculated  to  express  a  feeling  of  the  most 
poignant  grief  and  sorrow,  and  should  be  sparingly  used. 


202 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 


Sometimes  a  cadence  is  written  as  at  (V)  in  the  following  Ex.  being  the  first 
inversion  of  the  minor  9th  (diminished  7tli.) 

Or  as  at  VI,  2nd  inversion  of  the  same  chord. 
Or  as  at  YII,  compound  sharp  ?^- 


Or  as  VIII,  sharp  6. 


V. 


VI. 


Ex.  241. 


^53= 


^ 


^gz^lj^^^  ^-L^g 


w 


z^ 


3^ 


^ 


56  u 


VII. 


-g^g>- 


E^E 


-m^ 


VIU. 

-4 


1^ 


«6 

-fe- 


3 


Ei 


^=^ 


In  the  following  Modulations,  the  preceding  cadences  are  introduced :  — 


Ex.  242. 


t=^ 


g5:p:g^'^  rTTrr^ 


1 — >—^ 1 — I— • [ 


'^m 


\ 


Cadence.  ^k  ?* 


ii^ 


^ 


1^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ 


HAKMONY   AND   COMPOSITION. 


203 


Imperfect  Cadence. 

The  final  cadence,  after  frequent  repetition,  will  necessarily  lose  much  of 
its  eiTect;  because  the  ear,  being  accustomed  to  its  regular  indications,  will  an- 
ticipate its  arrival,  and  a  certain  degree  of  indifference  will  arise.  Instead,  there- 
fore, of  allowing  the  chord  of  the  |  to  resolve  upon  the  fundamental  chord  of 
the  dominant,  the  3rd  inversion  of  that  chord  4  may  be  introduced,  by  which  the 
ear  will  be  disappointed  in  its  expectation,  and  a  higher  degree  of  interest  be 
excited. 


Ex.243 


204 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 

False  Cadence. 


Another  kind  of  deception  is  sometimes  put  in  practice. 

Instead  of  the  resolution  of  the  Chord  of  the  fundamental  7tli,  another  chord 
may  be  suddenly  introduced. 


Ex.  244./ 


'-^ 


m 


ts^ 


EE 


At  a,  the  dominant  ascends  a  whole  tone  to  A,  which  must  be  a  minor  chord; 
the  bass,  in  a  false  cadence,  ascending  a  ruliole  tone,  can  only  be  employed  in  a 
major  key. 

We  may  also  allow  the  bass  of  the  dominant  to  ascend  a  half  tone  as  in  the 
following  Example  (at  a).  In  which  case,  the  concluding  chord  of  the  false  cadence 
must  be  major. 

N.B.  — "  When  we  are  in  a  major  key,  the  false  cadence  may  be  produced  by 
the  bass  ascending  either  a  half  or  whole  tone;"  but, 
"  When  we  are  in  a  minor  key,  the  bass  can  ascend  only  a  half-tone  (b). 


Ex.245. 


i^iil^ii^ill^^^^^^ 


Or  thus; 


Ex.  246. 


In  the  following  Example,  the  preceding  cadences  are  introduced :  — 


Ex.  247.^ 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 


205 


•c*^         i^-*^       "^         "rir        ^  ^    ^^       £53   jsa; 


:?= 


EE3 


Imperfect. 


^iib, 


^ 


-^ 1 ^= 


ffi&z 


::^= 


EE 


^1 


trs 


"i*qzO.-J=r 


aa     tt'    'ttj     ss 


^t=^^ 


=t^ 


d?^ 


^=1= 


I =tr 


^1 


Irs 


tt    ^ 


-ai«f 


-j£ 


"^— ^ -% 


^^^^^•^^=gi-*^=^r^p^^^=^^-^'^=^i=^p=^-^j^^f| 


200 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 


Interrupted  or  Broken  Cadence. 

Instead  of  introducing  a  final,  or  false  cadence,  we  may  make  a  sudden  stop 
after  the  dominant,  placing  a  rest  instead  of  the  tonic,  as  in  the  following 
Example  (a),  after  which  we  may  proceed  as  pointed  out  at  b,  or  as  already 
recommended  in  Example  246 :  — 

Allegro.^  Z.  ~"  ""  1.  ^ 

___|_.^ !_, !^^^^. -!— ^ -!     ,    ,      4- — I I- 


Ex.  24S. 


Irregular  False  Cadence. 

In  the  preceding  Examples  of  false  cadences,  the  intervals  of  the  dominant 
chord  proceeded  uniformly  into  consonances;  a  false  cadence  may,  however,  be 
constructed  so,  that  these  intervals  shall  not  proceed  into  consonances. 

In  the  former  false  cadences,  the  bass  ascended  a  whole  or  half  tone,  direct  to 
its  fundamental  bass.  The  bass  in  the  following  Example,  on  the  contrary,  does 
not  ascend,  but  descends  a  major  semitone;  neither  does  it  descend  into  a  funda- 
mental bass,  but  into  the  first  inversion  of  the  minor  9th;  viz.,  diminished  7th. 


Ex.  249. 


it 


^^^^g^ig 


j- 


--j- 


-g^ 


1= 


i^ 


i?7 

3^ 


b, 


b, 


^ 


ife= 


^ 


-J-  -Ti-  -a- 

At  a,  the  3rd  ascends  to  the  fundamental  7tli,  and  the  7th  descends  to  the 
minor  9th. 

At  b,  the  r)tli  ascends,  by  which  the  9th  is  doubled. 
At  c,  the  third  is  permitted  to  descend. 

Suspended  Cadence. 

If,  instead  of  preceding  with  the  dominant  chord  immediately  to  the  tonic 
we  should  first  make  a  few  protracted  modulations  and  then  close,  the  cadence 
will  be  suspended. 


Ex.  250. 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 

Great  Cadence. 


207 


In 


In  the  perfect  final  cadence,  the  tonic  is  always  preceded  by  the  dominant. 
the  great  cadence,  on  the  contrary,  the  tonic  is  preceded  by  the  suhdominant. 


Ex.  251. 


This  cadence  is  usually  employed  in  sacred  music  to  the  word  Amen  I.  It  pro- 
duces an  effect  calculated  to  create  in  the  mind  a  feeling  of  reverence  and  awe. 

Equivocal  Modulation. 

In  order  to  form  a  clear  and  distinct  idea  of  the  principles  on  which  these 
modulations  are  established,  a  few  preliminary  remarks  will  perhaps  be  necessary. 
It  has  frequently  been  observed  that  the  two  principal  intervals  of  the  dominant 
Tth,  in  their  progression,  insensibly  lead  the  ear  towards  the  chord  of  its  tonic; 
the  Tth  having  a  tendency  to  descend  and  the  third  to  ascend.  This  incessant 
inclination  of  these  two  intervals  to  proceed  thus  will  be  found  on  investigation 
to  be  occasioned  principally  (if  not  entirely)  by  the  3rd  in  the  chord  being  major, 
for,  were  we  to  make  the  3rd  minor,  this  inclination  would  immediately  cease,  as 
will  be  evident  on  performing  the  following  Example:  — 


Ex.  252. 


The  chords  at  I,  II,  III,  having  minor  3rds,  no  expectation  is  excited  in  the 
mind  that  these  3rds  ought  to  ascend,  although  each  chord  contains  a  fundamental 
7th:  the  ear  (as  it  were)  remains  passive,  and  without  the  smallest  reluctance  per- 
mits these  3rds  to  be  changed  in  the  course  of  their  progression  into  7ths.  At  IV, 
however,  the  case  is  very  different,  for  the  3rd  (G)  being  major,  the  ear  immedi- 
ately expects  this  3rd  to  ascend,  and  the  chord  of  the  tonic  (A-fiat)  to  follow:  tlms 
the  chord  of  the  minor  9th  at  (V),  having  a  major  3rd,  must  necessarily  proceed  to 
its  tonic  (A);  at  VI,  to  D  minor;  and  at  VII,  to  G  minor.  Now  let  us  recollect, 
that  this  important  interval  forms  a  major  3rd  with  tlie  fundamental  bass  only, 
and  with  no  other  interval.  If,  therefore,  the  fundamental  bass  be  taken  away, 
no  major  3rd  will  be  found  in  the  chord  to  guide  or  direct  our  ear.  See  VIII,  IX,  X. 
We  are  left,  as  it  were,  in  complete  uncertainty  as  to  where  the  chord  will  proceed ; 
for  the  remaining  intervals  of  the  chord  (after  the  fundamental  bass  has  been 
removed)  are  all  minor  3rds,  no  one  of  which  possesses  any  peculiar  power  or  qual- 
ity to  guide  the  ear.  But  if  we  lower  any  one  of  these  four  intervals  of  the  chords 
at  VIII,  IX,  X,  a  half  tone,  it  will  produce  a  major  3rd,  giving  thereby  a  decided 
direction  to  the  course  of  the  modulation  (which  was  before  equivocal).  Now  as 
the  interval  thus  lowered  will  be  the  dominant  of  the  key  to  which  we  modulate. 


208 


HARMONY  AND   COMPOSITION. 


and  as  each  of  these  four  intervals  may  alternately  be  lowered  a  half  tone,  it  follows 
that  an  equivocal  chord  may  be  converted  into /our  different  dominants,  and  may 
consequently  modulate  to  fovir  diffei-ent  keys.  The  three  remaining  intervals  of 
the  chord  undergo  no  alteration,  except  what  may  be  occasioned  by  an  enhar- 
monic change,  which  may  perhaps  be  found  necessary  when  once  the  dominant  is 

established.    . 

1.  2.       3.     4.       5.       6.      7.       8.  9.  10.      11.        12.     13. 


Ex.  253. 


At  1 :  is  the  chord  of  the  diminished  7th.  It  has  no  decided  character  but 
what  it  receives  from  the  fundamental  bass,  which  has  been  placed  under  it,  by 
which  the  modulation  goes  to  D  minor. 

The  C-sharp,  in  the  inverted  bass  at  2,  is  at  3  lowered  a  semitone  to  C-natural, 
and  thvis  E  (which  at  2  was  a  minor  3rd)  is  changed  to  a  major  3rd;  and  as  the  C- 
natural  is  the  dominant  to  the  key  of  F,  we  modulate  to  that  key  at  4. 

X.B.     All  the  rest  of  the  intervals  remain  as  before. 

Here  we  see  that  by  only  lowering  one  interval  of  the  chord  of  the  tliminished 
7th,  we  are  enabled  to  modulate  to  F  instead  of  D  minor. 

At  5:  The  chord  appears  again  as  originally  written  at  1,  but  at  6,  the  E  is 
loicered  a  half  tone  to  E-flat  (forming  thus  a  major  3rd  with  G),  and  as  E-flat  is  the 
dominant  to  A-flat,  we  modulate  (at  7)  to  that  key,  instead  of  D  minor. 

N.B.  All  the  intervals  remain  as  before,  except  C-sharp,  which  must  be 
changed  enharmonically  to  D-flat;  because  the  fundamental  7th  to  E  is  D-flat,  and 
not  C-sharp. 

At  8:  The  chord  appears  again  written  as  at  1.  The  G  is  lowered  at  9  a  half 
tone  to  G-flat;  and  as  G-flat  is  dominant  to  C-flat,  we  modulate  (at  10)  to  that  key 
instead  of  D  minor. 

N.B.  Two  intervals  must  here  be  cluiuged  enharmonically,  viz.,  E  to  F-fiat, 
and  C-sharp  to  D-flat.     The  reason  is  obvious. 

At  11:  No  change  of  modulation  has  taken  place,  for,  by  lowering  (at  12)  the 
B-flat  to  A,  we  produce  the  same  fundamental  bass  as  at  1 :  the  only  difference  is, 
that,  as  the  minor  9th  is  removed,  we  have  modulated  to  a  major,  instead  of  a 
minor  key. 

N.B.  Any  inversion  of  the  minor  9th  may  be  thus  employed,  as  well  as  the 
diminished  7th,  instances  of  which  are  given  in  the  following  example :  — 


\~^ 


HAKMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 


ten 


4.  5.  6. 

J  ,  ,  ten, 

— ten.        I  1  ;  j 


4— .Lli-iL^ 


ii__Li__ii 


^ 


7. 

J 


bi^        -^"T"!^  -J- 


bJ.- ^    J-- ^    Ijj-^  J- « 


1= 


ten. 


■fi      ^     ^ 


1 b^!*^?^*' 


'^% 


'm 


.ijd^__ii„_.-f_ 


«* 


i ^ :|         .    ^_     fej*      1         •^— ,    -^        b'?:J» -i 


13. 


iba- 


^£^ 


S^^fei 


n.  js^^jL  jij^^,^ij:  ^^,\r^^,  ,^,^w^^  ^  ,f^  ^"^ 


-^^ 


•^9^- 


210 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 

14. 


^^^_-Xjl^-^_JSih5^:f^^i^=^^^^^^;^^i 


frs 


:U^JI}jLj^-Jll^ji^M]-y:^-.-^,^^ 


--^- 


mi 


23. 


24. 


^  U^ -^V- 1 ■ 1 ^- 1 1 ' \- P-) 1 B»-l •-! >■  ■  ^    I 1 •-! 

£^^E==±g u    '  '  --teJ-i    '    '  ■;L_wgL-L-i:^rr-t-zE4=  III!  -'-13 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION". 


2H 


In  the  preceding  example  — 

At  2 :  A  demonstration  is  made  to  modulate  to  D  minor,  by  the  third  inversion 
of  the  minor  9th;  but  by  lowering  G  (the  inverted  bass)  at  3,  the  half  tone  to 
F-sharp,  a  modulation  is  effected  to  B-natural  minor  (at  4). 

At  5:  A  demonstration  is  made  to  modulate  to  A  minor,  by  the  first  inversion 
of  the  minor  9th;  b\it  B-natural  being  loitered  (at  G)  a  half  to  B-flat,  the  modula- 
tion goes  (at  7)  to  E-flat. 

At  8:  We  make  a  demonstration  to  modulate  to  F  minor,  by  the  second  inversion 
of  the  minor  9th;  but,  the  B-flat  (at  9)  being  lowered  to  A,  the  modulation  pro- 
ceeds (at  10)  to  B  minor. 

At  11:  The  demonstration  is  made  to  C  minor-  but  (at  12)  B-natural  is  lowered 
to  B-flat,  and  we  modulate  (at  13)  to  E-flat. 

Although  the  ear  cannot  recognize  any  change  having  taken  place  between 
the  chords  at  14  and  15,  when  played  on  the  pianoforte,  yet,  if  we  examine  the  fun- 
damental basses  of  these  two  bars,  it  will  be  evident,  that  in  order  to  modulate  to 


212 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 


G  minor  (at  16)  this  alteration  of  the  chord  became  necessary;  for  as  the  dominant 
to  G  is  D,  and  not  F,  we  could  not  have  modulated  directly  from  the  chord  at  13 
to  G  minor  at  16,  it  would  have  been  ungrammatical,  as  modulating  without  a 
dominant. 

At  20:  We  make  a  .demonstration  to  modulate  to  B-natural;  changing  this 
determination,  however,  by  lowering  the  A-sharp  to  A-natural  (at  21),  we  make  a 
demonstration  to  modulate  to  D;  here,  however,  the  course  is  again  changed,  by 
resuming  the  dominant  F-sharp  (at  20),  and  we  seem  to  modulate  once  more  to 
ii-natural;  instead  of  which,  however,  we  lower  the  C-sharp  (at  21)  to  C-natural, 
and  modulate  (at  13)  to  F. 

The  preceding  exercise,  which  is  written  for  the  pianoforte,  not  only  abounds 
in  secondari/  harmonies, extended,  pansiny  and  auxiliary  notes,  but  is  likewise  calcu- 
lated to  point  out  some  of  those  contrivances  in  composition,  by  which  a  series  of 
modulations  or  progressions  may  be  made  pleasing  and  interesting;  for  example: 
from  the  commencement  to  the  end  of  bar  12,  the  right  hand  plays  variations, 
founded  on  secondary  harmony,  interspersed  with  extended, passing,  and  auxiliary 
notes,  while  the  left  hand  accompanies  this  variation  by  the  simple  chords.  In 
order  to  produce  still  more  variety,  the  right  hand,  from  bar  13  to  2'),  plays  a  simple 
melody  without  the  least  embellishment,  while  the  left  plays  a  variation,  founded 
on  the  intervals  of  the  chord.  At  bar  26,  the  right  hand  again  commences  a  varia- 
tion, the  left  hand  accompanying  as  before.  The  example  concludes  with  a 
cadence,  commencing  at  bar  28,  in  which  the  minor  6th  has  been  introduced. 


Equivocal  Modulation  by  the  Compounded  Sharp  Sixth    ry 

This  chord  is  another  powerful  agent,  which  may  be  employed  with  great 
effect  in  producing  an  equivocal  modulation. 

If  we  lower  the  bass  of  any  inversion  of  the  chord  of  the  minor  9th  a  minor 

semitone,  the  chord  of  the    J.  will  be  produced,  after  which  we  can  modulate  as 

already  explained  in  examples  235  and  236. 

N.B.  We  must  be  careful  not  to  mistake  this  chord  for  one  of  those  just  des- 
cribed in  example  2.53;  because  the  note  which  was  there  lowered  became  a  dom- 
inant; whereas,  in  the  present  case,  it  becomes  a  false  5th,  and  (being  the  bass)  is 
the  second  inversion  of  the  dominant  chord. 

In  the  following  example  (at  bar  2),  is  the  first  inversion  of  the  minor  9th. 
The  bass  being  thus  lowered  (at  3)  a  semitone  the  ,  is  produced,  and  thus,  in- 
stead of  modulating  to  A-minor,  we  modulate  (at  4)  to  F-sharp  major. 

1.        2.  3.  4. 


Ex.  255. 


The  following  example  will  show  the  application  of  this  method  of  treating 
the  chord,  which  will  be  found  particularly  effective  when  introduced  immedi- 
ately after  the  imperfect  false  cadence:  — 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 


213 


Ex.  256.  / 


^ 


Imperfect        ^    Ped.  ■*  Fed. 

False  Cadence. 


*  Ped. 


-P^- 


m^. 


fcn= 


^ 


Ped." 


1^ 


^ 


Be- 


^^ 


^=M 


^^ 


::t 


*  pia: 


^g 


.«-.  .|ft.  .i«.  .,»-     .^- 


*  Fed. 


At  2:  An  irregular  false  cadence  having  taken  place  upon  the  first  inversion 
of  the  minor  fltli,  tliis  inverted  bass  F-sharp  is  lowered  a  half  tone  in  bar  :>,  to  F- 
nataral,  producing  thus  the  '|.  Here  we  ought  to  modulate  to  E,  instead  of 
which,  however,  we  make  that  E  a  dominant,  apparently  with  the  intcMition  of 
proceeding  to  A  (for  at  4  a  regular  cadence  commences  in  that  key);  but  instead 


214 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 


of  proceeding  to  the  tonic,  the  dominant  chord  at  5  falls  a,c:ain  at  6  a  major  half 
tone,  as  it  did  at  2,  and  thus  produces  once  more  an  irreijular  fidse  cadence  on  tlie 
chord  of  the  diminished  7th.  The  same  process  is  observed  through  each  succeed- 
ing four  bars  of  the  Example,  until  we  arrive  again  at.  the  key  from  which  we 
set  out. 

Deceptive  Modulafiun  —  in  wliich  the  Fundamental  Seventh,} 

resolves  into  the  Octave. 

It  cannot  be  too  frequently  impressed  upon  tlie  mind  of  the  learner,  that  the 
chord  of  the  Fundamental  7th  has  a  natural  tendency  to  guide  the  ear  to  the  chord 
of  its  tonic  only.  When,  therefore,  either  of  the  principal  intervals  of  the  dominant 
choi'd,  (viz.,  the  fundamental  7th  or  ord),  do  not  proceed  thus,  tliough  they  may 
resolve  into  consonances,  a  kind  of  deception  is  practised. 

In  the  follovping  Example,  at  1,  tlie  7th  of  (G)  the  fundamental  bass  descends 
as  usual,  but  instead  of  proceeding  to  the  third  of  its  tonic  (C),  it  falls,  at  2,  in  the 
octave  of  the  following  dominant  chord. 

The  3rd,  instead  of  ascending  into  the  octave,  remains  in  its  place,  and 
becomes  a  5th. 

The  5th  likewise  remains  in  its  place  and  becomes  the  7th;  and  the  bass, 
instead  of  proceeding  to  its  tonic  (C),  ascends  a  minor  semitone,  and  forms  the 
major  3rd  :*  thus  we  modulate  to  A  minor  instead  of  C. 


Ex.  257. 


N.B.     All  the  inversions  of  the  fundamental  7th  maybe  here  employed;  the 
most  effective,  however,  are  the  first  and  third. 

The  effect  which  these  deceptive  modulations  produce  will  be  better  under- 
stood by  the  following  short  example  of  Recitative :  — 


Ex.258.  ( 


^^^ 


•  This  must,  however,  be  understood  as  referrhii.;  only  to  the  mrerted  bass,  because  tne 
fundamental  bass  falls  on  this  occasion  on  a  minor  ard. 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 


215 


^^^Sg^ 


Deceptive  Modulation.  Deceptive  Modulation. 

— ^ 1  I  I  I  - 


1    W^ 


s*-       -•- 


^ 


f*— — **^ 


-^ — ' — I.—*-  --»~^ — —m-mm  i  m  m 


tS — *- 


&c. 


Deceptive  Modulations  —  in  which  the  Fundamental  Seventh 
resolves  into  the  Fifth. 

In  the  following  Example,  the  dominant  (G),  instead  of  proceeding  to  its  tonic 
(C),  ascends  a  whole  tone,  and  becomes  (as  in  the  foregoing  Examples)  the  domi- 
nant of  another  key,  which  latter  we  prefer  to  be  minor,  as  being  the  relative 
minor  to  the  subdominant  of  the  expected  key,  c. 


Ex.  359.  ( 


In  this  deceptive  modulation  the  7th  descends  on  the  5th  of  the  new  dominant; 
the  3rd  ascends  into  the  3rd  in  the  inverted  bass,  and  the  octave  remaining  in  its 
place,  prepares  the  7th  in  the  chord  of  the  new  dominant.  The  different  inver- 
sions of  the  above  chords  are  exhibited  at  b  and  c. 


The  following  Example  is  an  exercise  on  the  preceding:  — 


Ex.  260.  \ 


216 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 


m. 


^^ 


^=^- 


rrfes? 


^^ 


J-t^ 


v^^t 


a 


s; 


i^m 


Observe,  that  the  subject  of  the  two  first  bars  in  the  tenor,  is  imitated  in  bars  3 
and  4  by  the  hass;  in  bars  5  and  6  by  the  alto;  in  bars  .'.  ?nd  7  again  by  the  tenor; 
and  in  bars  8  and  9  by  the  soprano. 

Protracted  Modulation. 

If  the  3rd  of  the  dominant  chord,  instead  of  ascending  to  the  8th,  continue  to 
fall  a  minor  half  tone  on  the  7th  of  the  following  dominant,  it  will  produce  alter- 
nately the  4  and  I  and  form  thus  a  continued  chain  of  unresolved  dominant 
chords,  by  which  the  expected  tonic  is  omitted,  and  the^?iai  close  of  the  modu- 
lation deferred,  or  protracted,  as  in  the  following  example:  — 


Ex.  261 


P 


32^= 


:fe2== 


Mss^z 


:=hii 


m 


3^ 


be     &C. 


Se^ 


±221 


b-j- 


t:b^lgiy-Tf~^£3^^^  p^ 


:^= 


^^ 


t-+F— aa— F —  *    I  .  I    I  -i — a- 


U^- 


At  h:  Dissonances  are  introduced,  by  which  the  imitation  Avhich  naturally 
arises  out  of  these  modulations  is  more  apparent. 

The  following  is  a  protracted  modulation  with  the  addition  of  the  clioid  of 
the  minor  9th :  — 


Kx.  262. 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 


217 


At  a:  A  modulation,  such  as  has  been  exhibited  in  Ex.  255  (b),  is  here  intro- 
duced. 

At  b:  Appears  the  imperfect  false  cadence,  as  shown  in  example  256. 

The  following;  example  shows  another  kind  of  protracted  modulation,  by 
which  the  inverted  bass  is  enabled  to  descend  by  semitones  through  the  whole 
octave : — 

1.  2.  3.  4. 


At  3:  Is  the  first  inversion  of  the  minor  9th,  changed  at  4  to  the  chord  of  the 
compounded  sharp  sixth  by  the  inverted  bass  being  lowered  a  semitone.* 

•  See  example  255. 


218  HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 

At  5:  The  resolution  of  the  chord  of  the  |  has  been  omitted,  but  we  proceed 


as  if  it  had  taken  place,  thus : 

At  6:  The  chord  of  the  diminished  7th. 

At  7:  The  chord  of  the  compounded  sharp  sixth. 

At  8:  The  resolution  of  the  |  again  omitted. 

At  9 :  The  first  inversion  of  the  minor  9th. 

At  10:  The  9th  of  the  preceding  chord  changed  to  a  7th.     See  example  265. 

MODULATION  THROUGH   THE  ASCENDING   AND  DESCENDING 
CHROMATIC   SCALE. 

In  the  following  example  the  fundamental  7th  is  changed  to  a  minor  9th,  by 
which  the  inverted  bass  continues  to  ascend  by  half  tones:  — 


The  above  modulation  bears  a  strong  resemblance  to  example  257.  Here, 
however,  the  7th  is  not  resolved  into  the  octave,  but  changed  into  a  9th,  which 
occurs  again  at  II,  and  III;  and  in  this  manner  we  are  enabled  to  modulate 
through  the  whole  ascending  chromatic  scale. 

In  the  preceding  Example  the  fundamental  7th  was  changed  into  a  minor  9th; 
in  the  following  Example,  on  the  contrary,  the  9th  is  changed  into  a  7th,  by  which 
the  inverted  basses  continue  to  descend  by  half  tones:  — 


Ex.  265. 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 


219 


The  following  example  will  show  how  the  several  inversions  of  the  minor  9th 
may  be  employed  with  effect. 


^-^l^^^^^ 


■     ■     ^ 


r-tpt 


r-aatsrt 


^^=^ 


B2. 


IS 


P-b-0-=4 — b- 


«^ ^ 


-•-I         I  ,•■••,  .•  •  V 


^^ — bgfe= 


:i2^ 


^ 


b_bBB_ta 


^^^ 


5^ 


s^pb^^ 


=?=^ 


s* 


tt2, 


b7     zt 


^ 


s 


*      *        , I    --1-53 ~ 


w 


The  first  five  bars  contain  only  the  chord  of  the  minor  9th.  The  bass  com- 
mences with  the  interval  of  the  Itth,  and  passes  from  thence  to  the  7th,  5th,  and 
3rd  successively;  the  rest  of  the  parts  interchange  places,  during  which  the  a?io 
proceeds  from  the  7th  to  the  9th;  the  tenor  from  the  5th  to  the  7th;  and  the 


220 


IIAKMOW  AND  COMPOSITION. 


soprano  from  the  3rd  to  the  5tb.  The  same  occurs  freijuently  in  the  course  of  the 
example.  From  the  commencement  to  the  end  of  the  5th  bar  we  are  led  to 
expect  the  arrival  of  the  key  of  C  minor;  however,  the  ord  (B-natural)  in  that  bar 
havinji  been  lowei-ed  a  half  tone  to  B-Hat,  in  the  sixth  bar,  we  modulate  in  the 
seventh  bar  to  E-tlat.*  From  thence  to  the  twelfth  bar  is  continued  the  chord  of 
the  minor  9th  of  F,  and  thus  a  demonstration  is  made  to  modulate  to  B-flat  minor; 
but,  bv  the  introduction  of  the  z    in  the  IMth  bar,t  we  modulate  to  G,  and  from 

'J  5  5  '  ' 

thence  to  C  minor. 


Modified,  or  Secondary  Basses. 

The  only  fundamental  basses  which  hav*  hitherto  been  employed  in  harmo- 
nizini;  melodies  are  the  tonic,  dominant,  and  subdominant.  We  have  seen  that 
from  these  three  basses,  with  their  harmonies,  inversions,  occasional  introduction 
of  modulation,  dissonances,  passint^  and  auxiliary  notes,  we  have  been  enabled  to 
proceed  thus  far  with  sufficient  variety.  Let  us  now,  however,  make  an  attempt 
to  discover  other  basses  than  these  hitherto  employed,  and  thus  procure  a  still 
greater  diversity  of  effect. 

It  has  already  been  stated,  that  the  natural  scale  consists  of  three  sounds  only; 
that  our  modern  diatonic  scale  is  compounded  of  two  of  these  scales ;  that,  were 
we  to  continue  the  succession  of  these  scales  of  three  sounds,  we  should  continue 
to  modulate  ad  infinitum;  that,  in  order  to  avoid  this,  we  are  necessitated  to  break 
off  at  the  sixth  sound,  and  modulate  back  to  the  original  key,  by  which  consecu- 
tive fifths  and  octaves  are  produced. 

Let  us  now,  instead  of  breaking  off  at  the  sixth  sound,  continue  the  scale,  with- 
out paying  any  regard  whatever  to  the  semitones  which  shoiild  occur  between 
each  of  the  subsequent  scales  of  three  sounds.  If  we  continue  to  repeat  the 
figures  8,  .5,  3,  in  succession,  over  the  intervals  of  this  scale,  and  write  the  funda- 
mental basses  as  indicated  by  these  figures,  we  shall  find  that  (after  the  first  two 
scales)  the  intervals  which  follow,  instead  of  being  accompanied  by  the  tonic, 
dominant,  and  subdominant,  will  be  accompanied  by  other  basses;  the  chords 
of  which  (except  those  arising  from  the  three  original)  are  either  minor  or 
imperfect,  t 

If  we  divide  the  above  continued  scale  into  scales  of  three  sounds,  and  place 
under  each  its  generator,  or  tonic,  it  will  produce  a  progression  of  harmony,  whose 
basses  continually  ascend  by  fourths,  or  descend  by  fifths. 


Ex.  267.  ^ 


Ml 


E 


*  See  example  253.  t  See  oxample  255. 
X  An  imperfect  common  chord  lias  its  3rd  and  5th  minor,  thus: 
The  imperfect  common  chord  of  B    is    B,  D,  F. 
D    —    D,  F,  A-flat. 


HARMONY   AND   COMPOSITION. 


221 


In  accompanying  the  scale  as  above,  it  is  evident  that  we  have  deviated  (com- 
inencing  with  the  third  bar)  from  tlie  patli  pointed  out  by  nature,  and  conse- 
quently the  harmony  produced  is  often  obscure  and  crude.  Yet  this  very 
obscurity  we  shall  endeavor  to  turn  to  advantage,  and  by  introducing  it  judi- 
ciously amongst  the  harmonies  of  the  three  original  basses,  produce  still  more 
light  and  shade  than  heretofore.  Having  premised  thus  much,  let  us  enter  into 
an  examination  of  each  interval  of  the  diatonic  scale,  and  see  how  the  chords,  as 
exhibited  in  the  above  Example,  may  be  employed  in  our  future  Exercises. 

The  first  sound  of  the  scale  we  know  may  be  accompanied  by  two  basses,  viz., 
the  tonic,  which  is  an  8th  below,  and  the  subdominant,  which  is  a  .5th  below.* 
Now,  if  we  take  the  note  which  is  a  minor  3rd  below  (as  at  a  in  the  following 
Example),  we  shall  i^rocure  a  new  bass  (which  is  neither  one  of  the  original  three 
belonging  to  tlie  scale,  nor  a  dominant  by  which  we  can  modulate),  and  which, 
for  distinction,  we  shall  call  a  modified  or  secondary  bass. 


Ex.  268 


'i^^^^^sm^ 


m 


ea^Rj 


t=^ 


In  order  to  show  the  application  of  these  basses,  and  enable  the  pupil  to 
form  a  just  idea  of  their  effect,  let  him  compare  the  accompaniments  to  the 
.melody  at  6,  c,  d,  in  the  example  with  those  at  e,f,  g. 

At  b:  The  first  of  the  scale  has  been  accompanied  according  to  the  third  rule 
of  employing  fundamental  basses,  t 

At  c:  According  to  the  second  rule  of  modulating  in  a  melody,  t 

At  d:  Both  are  united. 

At  e:  Modified  bass,  with  third  rule  of  accompanying  the  scale. 

At/;  "  with  second  rule  of  modulation  in  a  melody. 

At  fj:  "  followed  by  the  chord  of  the  sharp  6th. 

At  /(.-  When  the  key  is  minor,  tlie  modified  bass  to  the  first  of  the  scale  has 
a  major  chord. 

The  second  of  the  scale,  as  we  know,  has  only  one  original  fundamental  bas.s, 
which  is  a  .5th  below,  and  thus  admits  of  two  modified,  viz.,  one  an  octave,  and  the 
other  a  third  below  (see  a  in  the  following  example):  — 

•  Third  rule  of  accompanying  tlie  scale,  page  44. 
t  See  page  «.  t  See  page  1.50. 


222 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 


Ex.  269. 


It  is  necessary  to  remark,  that  the  modified  bass,  which  is  an  octave  below, 
produces  a  better  effect  tlian  tlie  other,  and  sliould  therefore  have  the  preference; 
the  reason  is  this,  —  the  chord  produced  by  the  modified  bass,  a  3rd  below,  is  an 
imperfect  common  chord  having  a  minor  3rd  and  false  5th.  The  false  oth  and 
octave  of  this  chord,  when  heard  together,  produce  the  same  effect  upon  the  ear 
as  the  two  principal  intervals  of  the  fundamental  7th  (to  the  first  inversion  of 
which  the  imperfect  common  chord  in  its  effect  bears  a  strong  resemblance).  But 
as  the  false  fifth  in  ascending  {d),  and  the  octave  in  descending  (e),  ha^o  the  same 
effect  as  if  the  fundamental  7th  had  ascended  and  the  3rd  had  descended,  tlie  ear 
feels  a  certain  degree  of  dissatisfaction,  particularly  when  this  chord  is  employed 
fundamentally  (c);  when  inverted  {(7),  the  defect  is  not  so  very  perceptible,  owing 
to  the  octave  not  being  doubled. 

The  third  of  the  scale,  having  but  one  original  fundamental  bass,  may  be 
accompanied  by  two  modified  basses,  viz.,  a  5th  and  8th  below:  the  first  of  these, 
being  the  chord  of  the  relative  minor  to  the  original  key,  produces  the  best  effect, 
as  in  the  following  example,  at  a:  — 


Ex. 


The  fourth  of  the  scale  may  have  two  modified  basses,  viz.,  a  3rd  and  5th 
below  (h).  The  former  is  preferable,  the  latter  being  the  imperfect  common 
chord. 

The  fifth  of  the  scale  has  but  one  modified  bass,  viz.,  a  3rd  below  (c  )• 

An  application  of  the  preceding  modified  basses  will  be  found  at  d. 

Tlie  sucth  of  the  scale  has  two  modified  basses,  viz.,  a  5th  and  8th  below  (as  in 
the  following  example  at  a),  both  of  which  are  good :  — 


Ex.  271. 


The  seventh  of  the  scale  has  two  modified  basses,  viz.,  a  5th  and  Sth  below. 
The  first  is  preferable,  as  the  latter  produces  the  imperfect  common  chord. 

It  is  necessary  to  remark,  that  the  introduction  of  modified  basses  demands 
great  care  and  circumspection,  as  in  employing  them  more  mistakes  are  likely  to 
occur  than  on  any  other  occasion;  these,  however,  will  be  prevented  by  a  little 
attention  to  the  following  Qbservations :  — 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 


223 


1st:  Employ  the  modified  basses  very  sparingly;  for,  as  melody  is  derived  from 
the  harmony  of  the  original  fundamental  basses,  they  should  be  more  frequently 
employed  than  any  other:  they  originate  with  nature,  and,  therefore,  are  the  most 
satisfactory  and  pleasing.  On  the  contrary,  by  introducing  too  many  modified 
basses,  the  beauty  of  natural  harmony  accompanying  a  simple  melody  is  fre- 
quently obscured,  and  crudities  arise  which  we  should  endeavor  to  avoid. 

2nd:  Very  seldom  employ  th.e  imperfect  common  c\\ovd  fundamentally ;  to  the 
first  inversion  of  that  chord,  however,  no  objection  can  be  made. 

3rd :  Those  modified  basses  which  produce  the  relative  minors  of  the  tonic  and 
subdominant  should  be  employed  in  preference  to  any  other,  jjarticularly  when 
introduced  as  fundamental  basses;  they  are  on  these  occasions  exceedingly 
effective. 

4th:  No  modified  basses  should,  on  any  account,  be  introduced  until  the 
melody  has  first  been  harmonized  with  the  three  original  basses,  employing  the 
five  rules,  and  rules  of  modulation,  as  occasion  may  require;  after  having  done  so, 
we  should  carefully  examine  where  the  modified  basses  may,  with  most  propriety, 
be  introduced. 

In  order  to  show  the  application  of  these  basses,  and  give  some  idea  of  their 
effect,  the  simple  melody  at  I,  in  the  following  example  (written  within  the  com- 
pass of  a  6th)  is  variously  harmonized. 


Harmonized  with  the  original  basses,  interspersed  with  a  few  modulations: 

-! l_j— j-^J      J      J-  ' 


With  other  modulations:  — 


I— I. j 1-^      J      J- 


s 


—  5»-f  'T  W - 


HARMONY  AND   COMPOSITION 


Moditied  basses  employed,  interspersed  with  modulations. 


Harmonized  almost  throughout  with  modified  basses. 


At  (a)  III.  Is  a  deceptive  modulation,  the  fundamental  7th  resolving  into 
the  Sth. 

At  (a)  V.  The  third  of  the  dominant  chord  is  permitted  to  descend:  this 
license  is  often  indulged  in  by  composers,  to  obtain  a  fuller  harmony. 

Sequences  of  Sevenths. 

It  must  have  been  observed,  that  hitherto  we  have  treated  only  of  such  7ths 
as  required  no  preparation,  viz.,  fundamental  or  dominant  7ths;  we  shall  now 
introduce  7ths  which  require  to  be  prepared. 


HARMONY   AXD   COMPOSITION. 


225 


In  referring  to  example  267,  we  shall  find  that  the  generator  or  tonic,  being 
placed  under  each  scale  of  three  sounds,  produces  a  continued  progression  of 
basses,  ascending  4ths  (or  descending  oths);  which  uniformity  of  progression  we 
shall  call  a  sequence;  and  when  such  basses  are  accompanied  by  common  chords 
(as  in  the  above  mentioned  example)  we  shall  denominate  them  —  Sequences  of 
Common  Chords.  Xow,  as  the  above  progression  of  the  bass  ascending  a  4th  (or 
descending  a  5th)  is  the  same  as  from  a  dominant  to  its  tonic,  7ths  may  be  added- 
and  when  they  are  added,  we  shall  call  the  progression  —  a  Sequence  of  Sevenths.* 

When  these  7ths  are  added  to  minor  or  imperfect  common  chords,  the  effect 
produced  will  be  extremely  dissonant,  unless  the  7ths  are  prepared.  In  order  that 
the  pupil  may  clearly  understand  tlie  nature  of  a  sequence,  let  us  write  a  progres- 
sion of  basses,  descending  a  5th,  and  ascending  a  4th,  or  vice  versa,  as  at  a,  and 
then  add  a  simple  melody  as  at  b  in  the  following  example :  — 


Ex.  273 


If,  instead  of  permitting  the  3rds  of  the  basses,  in  the  preceding  Example, 
at  «,  b,  to  ascend,  we  let  them  remain  in  their  places  (as  at  c),  they  will  produce  a 
succession  of  7ths  prepared  by  the  3rds.  At  c,  the  7th  appears  only  alternately; 
but  if  we  add  another  part,  as  at  d,  we  shall  have  an  uninterrupted  chain  of  7ths, 
as  at  e,  where  it  will  be  perceived  that,  in  consequence  of  the  uniform  progression 
of  the  bass,  we  are  enabled  to  treat  the  3rds  of  the  new  part  which  was  added  at  d, 
exactly  in  the  same  manner  as  those  at  c. 

These  sequences  of  7ths  seem  to  partake  in  a  great  measure  of  the  character 
of  unresolved  retardations,  —  see  /,  where  the  retardation  of  the  7th,  has  been 
regularly  resolved  upwards. 

If  we  write  the  preceding  exercise  in  four  parts,  as  in  the  following  example 
at  a,  each  chord  will  be  accompanied  alternately  by  a  5th  or  8tli:  that  is, — the 
8th  remains  in  its  place,  and,  by  the  progression  of  the  bass,  is  changed  into  a  5th, 
similar  to  a  progression  of  fundamental  7ths. 


Ex.  274. 


-J L— 4-H   0      t 


jUgSBglglgi 


8         5.       8        S  III 

J-i  J-J  y;  j  ]..i^r^.  ^  - 


s 


V^- 


\-^-< 


111 

*  In  this  progression  of  sequences  a  most  admirable  symmetry  is  observable.  It  was  the 
great  source  from  wliich  the  ancient  composers  drew  their  subjects  for  fugue,  and  the  ground 
upon  which  tliey  chiefly  constructed  their  cnurch  compositions. 


226 


HARMONY   AND   COMPOSITION. 


At  6,  this  exercise  appears  in  five  parts ;  and  the  interchange  of  the  5th  and 
3th  takes  place  between  the  second  soprano  and  tenor  alternately. 

Observe  that  the  preparation  of  the  7th  may  be  effected  by  any  interval  of  the 
common  chord.  At  (c)  the  7th  is  prepared  by  the  3rd;  at  (d)  by  the  5th;  and  at  [et 
by  the  8th. 

Characteristic  difference  between  the  chord  of  the  fundamental  7th,  and  tha< 
of  the  7*^h  in  Sequence. 

The  chord  of  the  fundamental  7th  is  produced  The  chord  of  the  Tth  in  sequence  is  produced 

by  nature.*  hy  art. 

't  stands  t)et\veen  consonances  and  dissonayices.  as      It  is  a  dissonant  chord,  and  must  be  prepared. 

it  rt'(|uir('s  /lo  preparation,  but  must  beresolved. 
By  its  means  all  modulations  are  effected.  It  prevents  modulation. 

In  every  other  respect  both  chords  are  exactly  alike. 

The  7th  by  sequences  has  its  inversions  like  the  Fundamental  7th:  — 


Ex.  275. 


m\ 


i5=t 


■zzr-  J :ir 


"S :ir- 


At  a:  First  inversions.     At  b:  Second  inversions.     At  c:  Third  inversions. 

In  the  above  example,  sequences  of  the  7ths  and  common  chords  succeed 
each  other  alternately,  which  produces  a  much  better  effect  than  an  uninter- 
rupted succession  of  7ths. 

Intermixture  of  the  Fundamental  Iths  with  Iths  in  Sequence. 

When  the  7th  in  sequence  is  a  half  tone  higher  than  the  fundamental  7th,  the 
chord  will  be  a  major  chord  (a) :  — 


Ex.  276. 


,J 


Uij 


Wlien  the  7th  in  sequence  is  a  whole  tone  below  the  octave  (like  the  funda- 
mental 7th),  the  chord  will  be  either  minor  as  at  b,  or  imperfect  as  at  c. 

If,  therefore,  in  the  first  case  (at  a)  the  7th  be  lowered  a  half  tone,  as  at  a;  or 
the  chord  changed  from  minor  to  major,  as  at  e;  or  from  imperfect  to  perfect,  as 
at/;  the  chord  of  the  fundamental  7th  will  be  produced. 

If,  during  the  progression  of  sequences  of  7ths,  we  change  any  one  of  the 
chords  to  a  dominant  chord,  a  modulation  will  immediately  be  effected  to  the 
succeedinn  tonic,  upon  which  a  close,  though  not  a  final  one,  may  take  place;  or,  if 
we  choose,  we  may,  upon  this  last  tonic,  commence  a  progression  of  sequences, 
and  continue  as  before. 

•  See  example  48. 


HARMONY  AXD  COMPOSITION". 


227 


Observe  that,  in  a  progression  of  sequences,  no  sharp  or  flat  can  be  introduced 
which  does  not  belong  to  the  key  in  which  the  progression  takes  place;  for  a  mod- 
ulation to  another  key  would  be  the  immediate  consequence,  as  will  be  seen  by  the 
following  example : — 

1.      2.  3.  4.  5. 


Ex.  277. 


The  sequences  continue  to  the  3rd  chord  (inclusive);  the  fourth  chord,  having 
been  made  major,  modulates  to  the  key  of  A  minor  at  the  5th  chord,  after  which 
we  close  with  a  cadence. 

The  progressions  of  sequences  may  be  intermixed  effectively  with  a  progres- 
sion of  dominants,  thus:  — 

1.  2.  3^ 4.  5.  6. 


Ex.  278. 


In  the  preceding  example,  the  same  progression  of  the  fundamental  bass 
is  continued  throughout;  but,  after  the  first  three,  instead  of  sequences,  we  have 
employed  dominant  chords,  by  which  a  protracted  modulation  is  effected  at  4,  5,  6. 

The  following  example  will  show  how  admirably  these  sequences,  when  inter- 
mixed with  dominant  chords,  are  adapted  for  imitation  and  variety  of  effect:  — 
1.  2.  3.  4.  5.  6.  7.        8.  9. 


Ex.  279.^ 


rTT\- 


228 


18. 


19. 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 
20.  21. 


ritard.       tr 


In  the  preceding  example,  at  1,  2,  the  soprano  commences  a  short  subject, 
selected  from  the  two  first  chords  of  these  sequences;  and,  in  order  to  give  this 
subject  more  character,  two  notes  of  secondary  harmony  have  been  introduced. 

At  2,  the  alto  commences  the  imitation,  which  is  continued  to  6;  here  the 
tenor  takes  up  the  subject,  with  a  slight  variation,  and  pursues  it  as  far  as  10. 
where  it  is  resumed  by  the  alto,  and  subsequently  imitated  by  all  the  parts 
alternately. 

The  bass,  at  1,  2,  also  commences  a  short  subject,  founded  on  the  two  first  fun- 
damental basses,  with  their  first  inversions.  This  subject  is  answered  at  11  by  the 
tenor,  and  at  14  again,  slightly,  by  the  bass;  which  part,  at  15,  takes  up  and  con- 
tinues the  subject  of  the  soprano  to  19. 

The  seqv^ences  continue  as  far  as  7,  consequently  we  remain  in  the  orif/inai  key. 

At  8,  commences  a  protracted  modulation,*  which  ends  in  the  key  of  E-flat; 
for,  at  11,  the  modulation  is  arrested  in  its  progress  by  the  introduction  of 
sequences,  which  continue  to  14. 

From  15,  a  mixture  of  protracted  and  deceptive  modulationst  leads  us  back  to 
the  original  key. 

In  order  to  ascertain  whether  a  bass  melody,  about  to  be  harmonized,  will 
admit  of  sequences,  it  is  only  necessary  to  examine  whether  it  contains  any  of  the 
following  progressions :  — 


At  a:  Is  the  progression  of  the  fundamental  bass  itself. 

At  b:  The  progression  of  its  3rd. 

Ate;  The  progression  of  the  7th;  and  as  that  interval  must  be  always  pre- 
pared, it  is  easily  distinguished  from  any  other,  by  two  notes  of  the  same  denomi- 
nation being  tied  together.  The  first  of  these  notes  is  the  preparation  of  tlie  7th, 
the  second  is  the  7th  itself,  and  the  note  which  follows  is  its  resolution. 

Although  the  progression  of  the  5th  is  similar  to  that  of  the  7th  (see  d),  yet 
the  effect  is  not  so  good,  and  therefore  it  ought  to  be  sparingly  employed. 
•  See  page  21C.  t  See  page  214. 


HAKMONY   AND   COMPOSITION. 


229 


BASS   MELODY   WITH   SEQUENCES. 

Let  lis   suppose   that   we   were   required   to   harmonize    the   following    bass 
melody :  — 


Ex.28i.^^ig=^5: 


:t:t=f3i 


-I -s^ 


It  is  evident,  from  the  progression  of  the  intervals  of  the  above  theme,  that 
the  greater  part  of  them  may  be  considered  in  three  points  of  view:  — 

First,  They  may  be  treated  as  a  progression  of  sequences,  as  follows :  — 

7  7  7  -> ~.J  6  7  7  «  7  tt 


Secondly,  As  a  progression  of  dominant  7ths,  and  thus  modulate:  — 

tt        b7     .      fr7       _.-^2  J  5  7  t  tt 


^ 


4= 


--\=^z 


Thirdly,  As  partaking  of  both :  — 


tt     b^ 


i— i- 


tt    b7 


w^r^r^E^^^^^g^ 


In  the  following  example,  at  a,  the  bass  melody  of  example  28J  will  be  found 
harmonized  throughout  with  sequences,  except  where  the  progression  of  its 
intervals  rendered  it  impracticable:  — 

.-4^  J- 


Ex.  282 


^      /rvPP 


/  I  (.)  '    r     I      1      I     '      >  a    i     -f-   -^ 


230 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 


The  following  is  the  same  melody  and  harmony  as  the  foregoing,  with  the 
addition  of  passing  and  auxiliary  notes  and  secondary  harmonies,  by  which  the 
imitation  between  the  several  parts  naturally  arising  out  of  a  progression  of 
sequences,  will  he  more  clearly  perceived:  — 


N.B.     The  oths,  at  c,  between  the  soprano  and  tenor  by  contrary  motion,  are 

allowable.* 

•  See  example  280  (/). 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 


231 


Those  basses,  which  in  the  preceding  example  were  treated  as  sequences,  are 
in  the  following  example  treated  sometimes  as  dominants:  the  rules  of  "modula- 
tion by  the  intervals  of  a  melody  t"  have  likewise  been  employed;  and  thus  an 
effect  is  produced,  so  very  different  from  that  in  the  preceding  example,  that  one 
would  scarcely  imagine  both  to  have  emanated  from  the  same  bass  melody. 

The  student  will  find  much  improvement  in  a  careful  examination  and  com- 
parison of  these  two  examples. 


Ex.  2S3. 


Sva. 


Sva. 


N.B.     In  the  second  bar  a  deceptive  modulation  takes  place.* 
Lastly.   The  melody,  in  example  282,  which  has  been  extracted  from  the  bass 
melody  of  example  281,  is,  in  the  following  example,  re-harmonized  with  other 
basses,  according  to  the  five  rules  of  employing  fundamental  basses,  and  "  modular 
tion  by  the  intervals  of  a  melody." 

(«)   I — ^      ^ _J.i) 


Ex.  284. 


^E£ 


E^= 


AndaJite. 


r 


W 


I     fr 

*  Page  148.  to  161.  t  See  example  260. 

(a)  See  Licensed  Resolution  of  Dissonances,  Ex.  345.    (^)  See  Ex.  242. 
(c)  See  Ex.  L'lO./.    (d)  Ex.  255. 


232 


HARMOXY   AND   COMPOSITION. 


By  comparing  the  bass  and  harmonies  in  this  example  with  those  of  the  two 
preceding,  we  shall  perceive  what  a  variety  may  thus  be  created;  and  those  who 
are  inclined  to  study  composition,  will,  even  in  these  few  examples,  find  ample 
matter.  The  preceding  specimens  will  sufficiently  show  how  7ths  in  sequence 
may  be  employed  with  etfect;  their  introduction  not  only  prevents  frequent  mod- 
ulation (thus  impressing  the  present  key  more  strongly  on  the  mind),  but  also 
adds  strength  and  vigor  to  the  texture  of  the  liarmony.  They  contribute,  more- 
over, materially  to  cement  and  interweave  the  several  sections  of  which  periods 
are  c<mstructed*,  thus  forming  a  still  more  connected  chain  throughout  the  whole 

composition. 

Sequences  of  (Uhs,  (5  5,  and  7  (5. 

From  the  progression  of  fundamental  sequences  of  common  chords,  at  a,  arise 
those  at  h  and  c. 


Ex.  285.  \ 


•See  Periods,  example  307. 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITIOX. 


233 


f 


=|: 


^3i=S 


m 


^ 


-^- 


i;:^ 


-4 


m^^- 


^ — r- 


^ 


^^- 


M- 


T 


'^ 


In  employing  the  progressions  of  the  preceding  Ex.,  it  may  perhaps  be  better 
to  let  the  6tli  appear  on  the  accented  part  of  the  bar  (as  at  ft),  because  the  5th  in 
that  situation  produces  in  some  measure  the  effect  of  consecutive  5tlis :  this  obser- 
vation, however,  has  only  reference  to  what  is  called  the  strict  style  of  writing.* 

By  omitting  the  common  chord  in  the  progression  at  c,  a  sequence  of  the 
chord  of  the  6th  will  be  produced  (as  at  d),  the  effect  of  which,  when  judiciously 
employed,  is  very  good. 

From  the  descending  progression  of  the  6th  at  e,  is  derived  that  at  /,  which 
indeed  is  nothing  else  than  the  dissonance  of  the  9th  resolving  into  theSth;  in 
this  case,  however,  the  interval  of  the  9th  (wliicli  is  the  7th  to  the  present  bass) 
must  appear  in  the  soprano :  were  we  to  give  it  to  the  alto,  as  at  gr,  consecutive 
5ths  would  be  produced;  for  the  intervening  dissonance  does  not  obviate  the 
improper  progression.  This  is  sliown  at  <j(j,  where  the  dissonance  is  omitted; 
should  we,  however,  consider  the  proper  fundamental  bass  to  this  progression  to 
be,  as  written  at  /<,  then  the  7  6  arises  from  a  sequence  of  7ths,  and  these  two 
intervals  may  appear  in  the  alto. 

It  may  be  observed,  that  a  sequence  of  6tlis  is  better  calculated  for  a  harmony 
of  three  parts  tlian  four;  because,  in  avoiding  the  consecutive  5th  at/,  the  tenor 
is  obliged  (as  at  ?,  k)  to  proceed  by  great  intervals,  which  disturbs  that  smooth 
and  graceful  progression  for  which  sequences  of  6ths  are  distinguished. 

*  See  Strict  and  Free  Style. 


234 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 


How  admirably  Haydn  has  treated  a  progression  of  sequences  of  this  de- 
scription will  be  seen  from  the  following  specimen,  extracted  from  one  of  his 
quartets :  — 


^^^^Pfe:- 


Ex.286. 


The  following  example,  which  is  written  for  the  pianoforte,  exhibits  all  the 
preceding  sequences  in  their  various  forms,  ascending  and  descending.  They  are 
written  chiefly  in  three  parts;  and  still  more  clearly  to  show  their  effect  when 
written  thus,  a  contrast  is  produced  by  writing  the  harmony  on  every  other  occa- 
sion as  full  as  possible. 

Allcfcro  moderato.   ^ 


f 


:tt2^ 


^1== 


B« 


^^W 


P 


b7       % 

*  See  example  2t;e. 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 


235 


1^  ^ 


1^  N       J- 


(^^mm=^^^m 


-^J"  ^T'iz    ^' 


g^Eg^EEE^EgE^E^E^E^=^^ 


dim. 


/ 


^f 


►t 


-s — "^ — *- 


-.:^-. 


^^^ 


t^:^ 


g     |«W — S »■ — .» tG> » 


6  6         ',         I 


6         6  7 


r 1    •  I    F — I — h- 


u^ 


^S 


d=.'= 


'     t 


-1 ^: 


-$*- 


Three  Motions  in  Harmony. 

When  two  or  more  parts  proceed  together  in  ascending  or  descending,  they 
are  said  to  proceed  by  similar  motion  (as  at  a) :  — 


Ex.  288. 


^^r=wA 


^-F^U 


E^ 


E^IfE^S 


=i=i:=t 


■ffTTi 


1^.  I   I    I 


J--J^=d. 


■s* h 


rrriru 


33-- 


236 


HARMONY  AND   COMPOSITION. 


When  one  part  ascends  or  descends,  while  another  remains  in  its  place,  an 
oblique  motion  will  be  produced  (h).  When  one  part  ascends,  while  another 
descends,  they  proceed  by  contrary  motion  (c).  These  different  motions  or  pro- 
gressions may  be  more  or  less  combined;  for  example:  two  parts  may  proceed  by 
similar  or  contrary  motion,  and  a  third  part  remain  in  its  place.  At  d,  the  soprano 
and  alto  proceed  by  similar  motion,  and  by  the  bass  remaining  in  its  place,  they 
produce  collectively  the  similar  and  oblique.  At  e,  the  soprano  and  bass  proceed 
by  contrary  motion ;  but  the  alto  remaining  in  its  i)lace,  they  produce  collectively 
the  contrary  and  oblique.  At/,  the  soprano  and  alto  descend  hy  similar  motion, 
while  in  like  manner  the  bass  and  tenor  ascend,  producing  collectively  the  sim- 
ilar and  contrary;  while  at  r/,  the  oblique  has  been  added.  At  h,  all  these  various 
motions  have  been  exemplified  by  the  progression  of  the  chord  of  the  fundamental 
7th  to  its  tonic. 

Consecutive  bths  and  8ths. 

It  has  already  been  shown  how  these  forbidden  progressions  in  some  measure 
may  be  avoided;*  we  shall  now  dilate  somewhat  more  on  this  subject,  and  intro- 
duce specimens  from  the  works  of  the  most  classical  authors,  to  show  how  they 
have  proceeded  on  these  occasions.  One  general  rule,  however,  by  which  these 
troublesome  progressions  may  be  got  rid  of,  is,  to  employ  contrary  or  oblique 
motion.     In  the  following  example, 

At  a:  Consecutive  5ths  and  8ths. 

At  b:  Prevented  by  contrary  motion. 

At  c;  Consecutive  5ths  and  8ths. 

At  d:  The  8ths  are  prevented  by  contrary,  and  the  .5ths  by  oblique  motion. 


Ex.2: 


.5ths  and  8ths  may  follow  each  other  in  the  same  parts,  provided  they  proceed 
by  contrary  motion. 


s--       f^  (do.) 


rl=it^ 


^i 


:Jrdrr)r 


At  e;  Are  8ths  between  the  treble  and  bass. 

At/.-  .'Jths  between  tenor  and  bass. 

At  g:  As  here  written,  there  appear  consecutive  .itlis  between  the  tenor  and 
bass,  but  the  composer  makes  the  second  violin  and  tenor  cross  each  other,  and 
thus  the  5ths  are  preventedt. 

•  Page  36.  t  Page  44  &  45. 


HAKMONY  AND   COMPOSITION. 


Hidden  Fifths  and  Eighths. 


287 


When  two  parts,  proceeding?  together  by  similar  motion,  terminate  their  pro- 
gression by  Sths,  they  are  said  to  produce  hidden  consecutive  8ths  (as  at  a);  for  if 
the  space  between  these  two  intervals  be  filled  xip  (as  at  b),  consecutive  Sths  will 
be  evident;  but,  as  these  notes  are  not  introduced,  such  consecutive  Sths  are 
therefore  purely  imaginary:  they  may  easily  be  prevented  by  contrary  motion 
(as  at  c). 


Ex.  290. 


The  same  observation  may  be  applied  to  hidden  5ths  (d). 

Such  hidden  Sths  or  Sths  as  are  produced  by  both  parts  proceeding  by  skipt 
(as  at  e),  are  worse  than  the  preceding,  and  should  be  cautiously  avoided. 


The  minor  or  false  5th  should  (strictly  speaking)  not  be  allowed  to  precede  the 
major  .5th,  because  a  hidden  perfect  .5th  is  found  between  them  (/)*;  but  the 
major  5th  may  precede  the  minor  5th  (g).  Hidden  Sths  and  Sths  are  generally 
allowable,  and  it  will  be  found  that  the  works  of  the  best  and  most  classical 
authors  abound  in  them;  between  the  extreme  parts,  however,  it  is  at  all  times 
advisable  to  avoid  them.  Yet,  even  here,  we  find  Haydn  and  others  have  had  no 
Bcruple  in  using  them  (see  a) :  — 


Ex.  291. 


The  consecutive  Sths  which  are  produced  by  the  progression  of  the  chord  of  the 
Jf  5  at  a,  are  at  b  prevented  by  suspensions.  Cherubini,  however,  in  one  of  his  late 
church  compositions,  has  permitted  those  consecutive  Sths,  as  exhibited  at  (c), 
to  appear  more  than  oncet. 

•  This  rule  is  not  so  much  attended  to  by  modern  composers.       t  See  page  16C. 


238 


HARMONY  AXD  COMPOSITION. 


Consecutive  5ths  (when  produced  by  passing  notes)  ai-e  permitted,  because 
passing  notes  do  not  form  an  essential  part  of  the  harmony*. 


Ex.  291  a. 


Improper  progressions  cannot  be  prevented  by  diversifying,  or  (as  it  is  usually 
called)  breaking  the  chord;  for,  whether  the  intervals  of  the  chord  are  varied  as 
at  (a),  or  struck  together  as  at  (6),  their  effect,  with  reference  to  their  improper 
progression,  will  remain  the  same. 

b. 


Ex.  292.  \ 


Nor  can  consecutive  5ths  or  8ths  be  prevented  by  the  introduction  of  rests  (c). 

As  a  progression  of  3rds  is  allowed,  why  may  not  a  progression  of  5ths  or  8ths 
be  allowed  also?.  Natuke  herself  appears  to  reject  them! 

We  find  that  the  harmony  arising  from  the  vibration  of  a  string  produces  con- 
secutive 3rds,  but  neither  consecutive  5ths  or  8thst.  Nature  has  here  been  most 
decided:  she  points  out  to  us  a  uniform,  uninterrupted  chain  of  harmony,  so 
closely  interwoven  that  not  the  least  break  is  discoverable.  Ilidden,  or,  in  other 
words,  imaginary  5ths  and  8ths  do  present  themselves,  but  no  real  consecutives. 
Neither  shall  we  find  that  two  intervals  of  the  same  name,  except  3rds,  follow 
each  other  directly;  and  even  those  are  of  different  species;  for  the  first  of  them 
(which  is  produced  on  the  second  of  the  scale)  is  major. 

The  continual  interchange  of  intervals  which  takes  place  in  the  harmony  of 
the  scale,  arising  from  nature,  points  out  to  us  the  origin  of  that  beautiful  variety 
and  regularity,  so  indispensable  in  a  musical  composition.  In  one  word,  it  is  the 
fountain  from  which  flows  the  first  stream  of  pure  harmony,  and  the  stream  ought 
to  be  kept  as  pure  in  its  course  as  the  source  from  which  it  springs. 

The  necessity,  therefore,  for  the  rule,  that  "  consecutive  5ths  and  8ths  are  to 
be  avoided,"  is  self-evident,  and  we  may  rest  assured  that,  when  these. improper 
progressions  have  been  permitted  to  take  place,  it  has  been  at  the  sacrifice  of  a 
better  melody  and  harmony. 

•  See  SuLZEB's  Allgemeine  Theorie  der  Schbnen  Kunste,  page  758.  t  See  page  61 . 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION.  230 

INTRODUCTION  TO    THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  MELODIES. 
On  the  different  measures  of  Time,  Rhythm,  etc.,  etc. 

Hitherto  the  pupil  has  harmonized  only  such  melodies  as  were  written  for 
him;  it  shall  now  be  shown  how  he  himself  may  construct  melodies. 

The  first  step  toward  the  accomplishment  of  this  object  will  be  to  make  him 
acquainted  with  the  formation  of  a  bar,  and  the  various  descriptions  of  time  in 
which  a  composition  may  be  written. 

In  order  to  clearly  understand  what  is  meant  by  different  measures  of  time, 
let  us  suppose  the  notes  in  the  following  example  performed  with  an  equal 
degree  of  strength  throughout;  in  this  case  they  will  convey  no  particular  mean- 
ing or  expression,  except  what  is  produced  by  their  rising  and  falling;  they  are 
(if  we  may  be  allowed  to  use  a  metaphor)  inanimate;  and  though  harmony,  modu- 
lations, dissonances,  etc.,  might  contribute  much  towards  calling  them  into  life, 
yet  one  powerful  ingredient  would  still  be  wanting,  viz.,  a  proportion  or  form. 


Ex.  293. 


i 


J^ 


In  order  to  obtain  this  rhythmical  form,  let  us  divide  the  above  series  of  notes 
into  portions  of  two  notes  each,  as  in  the  following  example:  — 


Ex.  294. 


These  divisions  we  shall  call  bars,  which  are  distinctly  separated  by  lines 
drawn  across  the  staff.  This  process  gives  us  eight  bars.  Were  we,  during  the 
performance,  to  count  them  —  one,  two,  three,  etc.,  to  eight,  we  should  uncon- 
sciously lay  a  stress  upon  the  first  note  of  each  bar,  but  not  on  the  second;  this 
we  shall  call  accent;  and  it  is  the  commencement  of  rhythm. 

From  the  first  division  of  two  notes  in  each  bar  is  deduced  the  rule  that, 
when  a  bar  contains  two  portions  of  equal  value  (whether  they  be  semibreves, 
minims,  or  crotchets),  the  first  half  is  accented,  and  the  second  half  unaccented. 

This  measure  of  time  we  shall,  for  the  present,  mark  by  the  figure  2,  at  the 
beginning  of  the  staff;  thus:  ^  for  two  semibreves  in  a  bar;  ^  for  two  minims;  and 
4  for  two  crotchets,*  and  as  each  bar  consists  of  two  notes  of  equal  value  (or  their 
equivalent)  we  shall  call  it  equal  or  common  time.]' 


*  The  upper  figure  expresses  the  number,  and  the  lower  figure  the  value  (as  to  time)  of  each 
note  in  a  bar. 

t  In  modern  compositions,  this  measure  of  time  is  generally  marked  thus,  ^:  it  would,  how- 
ever, be  advisable  to  adopt  the  above  simple  mode,  as  it  is  better  calculated  to  show  the  real 
difference  between  the  f  here  mentioned,  and  the  2  hereafter  shown. 


240 


HARMONY  AND   COMPOSITION. 


Two  bars  of  the  above  may  be  united  to  form  one  bar;  -which  will  produce  a 


measure  of  time  of  four;  thus:    ,,  2?  4j  s* 

ac. 


# 


Ex  296./ 


i 


As  each  bar  of  the  latter  arises  from  a  union  of  two  of  the  former,  it  follows 
that  each  bar  of  the  latter  must  necessarily  have  also  two  accents,  viz.,  on  the  ^first 
and  third  portions;  with  this  difference,  however,  that  the  second  accent  (marked 
here  with  a  small  a)  is  not  so  strongly  accentuated  as  the^rst. 

The  time  arising  from  four  notes  of  equal  value  is  called  long  common  time. 

N.B.  Let  this  distinction  between  the  measure  of  g  and  ^  be  carefully  kept 
in  mind. 

If  that  equal  measure  or  division  of  time,  which  was  first  described,  be  des- 
troyed by  doubling  the  value  of  the  first  portion  (as  at  a  in  the  following  exam- 
ple), or  by  reducing  that  of  the  second  portion  to  one  half  of  the  value  (as  atb),  a 
new  measure  of  time  will  arise,  consisting  of  three  notes  of  equal  value  (as  to 
time)  in  each  bar;   this  is  called  ti-iple,  or  unequal  time,  and  is  marked  thus: 

3  3  3 

2  4  8*  „        ac. 


As  the  above  triple  time  arises  out  of  the  measure  of  g,  as  described  at  Ex. 
295,  it  should  consequently  have  but  one  accent,  viz.,  on  the  first  portion  of  each 
bar. 

It  is,  however,  necessary  to  observe  that  another  kind  of  triple  time  is  in  use, 
arising  out  of  an  original  grouping  of  three  notes  of  equal  value,  between  which 
notes  the  accent  is  sometimes  equally  divided. 


Ex.  29S.    \ 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 


241 


The  characteristic  difference  between  these  two  species  of  triple  time  ia  suffi- 
ciently strong  not  to  be  easily  mistaken;  for  instance,  it  will  be  clearly  seen  that 
the  triple  time  at  (c),  in  the  following  example  is  derived  from  the  measure  2  at 
(6) ;  while  that  at  (d)  is  derived  from  an  original  grouping  of  three  notes  of  equal 
value.  The  accent  of  the  former  measure  of  time  admits  of  no  doubt,  while  that 
of  the  latter  is  equivocal. 

(.i)  ac.  ac.  "  ac.  ac. 


Ex.  299 


If  in  a  bar  of  2,  one  half  its  value  be  added  after  each  note,  a  new  measure  of 
time  will  again  be  produced,  called  compound  common  time,  marked  thus:  f,  g, 

ac.  ac. 


Ex.  300. 


As  this  division  of  time  arises  out  of  the  measure  of  2,  it  ought  consequently 
to  have  but  one  accent,  and  we  shall  call  it  short  compovuid  common  time. 

When  two  bars  of  triple  time,  arising  out  of  the  measure  of  2,  are  united,  long 
compound  common  time  will  be  produced. 


Ex.  301. 


--\=.z 


iil 


ac. 


As  this  time  arises  out  of  the  measure  of  4,  each  bar  must  of  course  have  but 
two  accentuations,  as  in  Ex.  29(j.  This  long  compound  common  time,  arising  out 
of  4,  is  sometimes  mistaken  for  that  arising  from  2.  The  difference,  however, 
will  be  immediately  perceived  on  comparing  the  short  compound  common  time  at 
(h),  with  the  long  at  (c)*  in  the  following  example:  — 

•  See  also  Ex.  309. 


M2 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 


b.     ac. 


Ex.  302. 


i^ 


f 


-e 


^^^ 


.»..      ac.  ac. 


=t^S= 


By  adding  the  bars  of  short  \  together,  we  produce  g  ;  and  as  this  measure  of 
time  arises  from  ^j  it  follows  that  tiGO  accents  must  take  place  in  each  bar. 

ac. 


Ex.  303.  / 


By  adding  one  half  of  its  value  to  each  note  of  3  in  a  bar,  compound  triple 
time?  y,  is   produced. 


Ex.  304. 


Whether  the  accent  is  to  fall  on  the  first  part  of  the  bar,  or  to  be  equally 
divided,  will,  of  course,  depend  on  the  original  measure  of  time  from  which  this 
compound  time  is  derived. 

The  following  example  (o0.5)  will  exhibit,  in  a  still  stronger  point  of  view,  the 
variety  of  effects  which  may  be  produced  by  merely  altering  the  rhythmical  form 
of  a  simple  melody.  In  this  it  will  be  perceived  that,  without  deviating  from  the 
original  progression  of  the  notes,  all  the  subsequent  variety  of  effects  has  been 
produced  by  either  changing  the  measure  of  time ;  by  shortening  or  lengthening 
the   value  of  some   of  the  notes;  by  employing  dots,  rests,  etc.,  etc.     As  one 


HARMONY  AKD  COMPOSITION. 


243 


example  often  tends  more  to  elucidate  a  subject  than  pages  of  explanation,  the 
following  may  serve  as  a  slight  specimen  of  the  importance  ofj  rhythm ;  and  to 
show  how  much  it  influences  the  effect  of  a  musical  composition,  a  description  has 
been  attempted  of  the  various  feelings  and  passions  supposed  to  be  portrayed  by 
the  different  alterations  of  the  rhythmical  form  of  the  melody.  Rhythm,  indeed, 
may  be  considered  as  the  soul  of  music, 'and  demands  our  utmost  attention. 


Ex.  305. 


Inanimate. 


Indolent. 
Sluggish. 
Languid. 


A  little  more 
Animated. 


Excitement. 


Passion. 
Turbulence. 
Impetuosity. 


Vexation  and 
Anger. 


Fear. 
Trembling. 


Agitation. 


Resolution. 
Determination. 


Meekness. 
Gentleness. 
Intreating. 


Amiable. 

Insinuating. 


Graceful. 


Suavity. 


m 


d^ 


Moderate. 


Allegro  tnoderato. 

0   0    »    1 


i=^?= 


!>'-■*- 


scip: 


0  -*   ^ 


r-^-^ 


-4—^\- 


Allegro  con  sfirtto 


244 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 


Pride. 
Haughtiness. 


Cheerful. 


CONTEN'TMENT. 


Infantine 
Playfulness. 


Mez.  voce. 
On  the  Construction  of  Periods,  or  Musical  Phrases. 

In  the  preceding  examples  it  has  been  shown  that,  by  dividing  a  succession 
of  notes  into  certain  portions,  bars  are  produced.  Proceeding  thus  with  a  succes- 
sion of  bars,  we  shall  produce  musical  periods,  or  phrases.  A  union  of  several  of 
these  periods  forms  a  composition.  As  the  most  natural  measure  of  time  arises 
out  of  an  even  number  of  bars,  viz.,  g,  4-*  those  periods  which  consist  of  2,  4,  8, 
10,  or  any  even  number  of  bars,  are  the  most  natural  and  pleasing;  we  shall  there- 
fore call  them  regular  periods.  The  conclusion  of  a  period,  in  music,  is  similar  in 
effect  to  a  full  stop  in  language;  every  period  should  therefore  end  with  a 
cadence. 

The  following  example  is  a  period  consisting  of  four  bars,  including  the  final 
cadence : — 

Moderato.  ,        ^1  .  , 

-J ! — J   I  ^      ^ — ,-J i~d-jt 


Ex.  306. 


As  at  the  close  of  this  period  the  ear  is  brought  to  a  state  of  perfect  rest  by  the 
final  cadence,  we  shall  call  it  a  '■''  perfect  period.'''' 

It  is  not  absolutely  necessary  that  all  periods  should  end  in  the  same  Wey  in 
which  they  commenced. 

-J 


r^ 


i 


* 


Ex.  307. 


Here  the  period  commences  in  the  key  B-flat,  and  ends  in  its  relative  minor: 
it  will,  however,  be  understood,  as  a  matter  of  course,  that  the  melody  cannot  end 
thus;  something  must  follow,  in  order  to  return  to  the  original  key. 

After  having  commenced  a  period  of  eight  bars,  we  perceive,  on  approaching 
the  fourth  bar,  that  we  are  imperceptibly  attracted  towards  the  harmony  of  the 

•  See  example  295. 
510       32 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 


245 


dominant,  and  a  desire  is  experienced,  at  that  point,  to  come  to  a  certain  degree 
of  repose.  If,  therefore,  in  the  fourth  bar  of  a  period  of  eight  bars  we  come  to 
the  harmony  of  the  dominant,*  whetlier  hy pro'jresslon  or  modulation,  we  shall  call 
it  a  half  period ;  to  proceed  by  modulation,  however,  is  preferable.  The  period 
in  the  following  example  consists  of  eight  bars,  divided  by  the  half  period  effected 
by  modulation  at  (a) :  — 


Had  the  harmony  of  the  third  and  fourth  bars  of  the  above  example  been 
written  as  at  (5),  the  half  period  would  have  been  formed  by  progression. 

Where  the  melody  is  written  in  long  common  or  long  compound  time,  the 
period  will  generally  be  found  to  consist  of  four  bars  only:  in  that  case  the  half 
period  will  of  course  fall  on  the  second  bar. 


Half  Period. 


Ex.  309. 
Haydn. 


m^^^m^m 


1^ 


5r5-: 


jnU--i 


A  period,  or  half  period,  may  also  be  divided  into  smaller  portions,  called 
"  Sections,''^  which  may  either  proceed  by  progression  or  modulation.  When  a 
section  of  modulation  is  introduced  on  the  accented  part  of  the  bar,  we  shall  call 
it  an  accented  section  of  modulation;  and  when  introduced  upon  an  unaccented 
part  of  the  bar,  an  unaccented  section  of  modulation;  the  effect  of  the  latter,  when 
contrasted  with  that  of  the  former,  will  be  found  much  more  soft  and  insinuating. 

These  matters  will  probably  be  more  clearly  comprehended  by  examining  the 
following  melody  with  attention. 

First :  It  comprises  sixteen  bars,  divided  into  two  parts  of  eight  bars  each. 
Each  of  these  parts  consists  of  a  whole  period.  The  first  is  divided  by  a  half 
period,  effected  at  (a)  by  a  modulation  to  the  dominant.  At  (6)  are  accented  sec- 
tions of  modulation,  and  at  (c)they  are  unaccented. 

*  Although  the  harmony  of  the  dominant  is  here  the  most  natural,  yet,  for  the  sake  of 
variety,  a  modulation  to  the  relative  minor,  or  dominant,  subdominant,  etc.,  ought  not  to  be 
objected  to,  as  will  be  shown  presently. 


246 


HARMONY  AXD  COMPOSITIOX. 


Ex.  310. 


Had  the  same  melody  been  written  and  harmonized  as  in  the  following 
example,  the  sections,  together  with  the  half  period,  would  have  been  by  progres' 
sion  instead  of  modulation:  — 

Half  Period  by  Progression. 

IliF^-^'- — ^ 

Ex,  311. 


The  notes  constituting  the  final  cadence  may  of  themselves  be  treated  as  a 
period,  as  in  the  following  example;  but,  as  the  effect  produced  by  such  short 
periods  (particularly  when  written  in  immediate  succession,  and  without  modula- 
tion) is  exceedingly  monotonous  and  puerile,  they  should  be  avoided. 


Period.  Period.  Period.  Period. 


Ex.312. 


X_i- 


By  the  introduction  of  modulation,  however,  even  such  short  periods  may  ba 
made  pleasing  and  interesting. 


510 


HARMONY   AXD   COMPOSITION. 


247 


Ex.  313. 


Period.  Period. 


Period. 


P^^iife^ 


tl7 


By  a  careful  examination  of  the  above,  we  shall  find.  First:  That  the  monotony 
produced  by  the  second  period  in  Ex.  312,  is  here  avoided  by  a  modulation  to 
E  minor.  Secondly:  That  the  last  four  bars  which  in  Ex.  312  appear  as  tico 
periods,  are  here  united  into  one,  by  the  introduction  of  the  modulation  to  B  minor 
in  the  sixth  bar. 

It  will  be  perceived  that  the  modulations  by  which  a  union  is  effected  between 
the  several  periods  in  the  preceding  example  take  place  upon  the  unaccented 
parts  of  the  bar;  if,  however,  the  rhythm  of  these  bars  be  altered,  a  new  and  more 
striking  effect  will  be  given  to  the  whole  subject,  thus:  — 


Ex.314. 


=^=F« 


^-^4- 


-i-J^-4 


^^^^^m^^^ 


rinf. 


:*=l*^ 


rinf. 


rinf. 


^ 


CfT 


«« 


That  the  rhythm  here  is  neither  so  natural  nor  so  Cowing  as  in  Ex.  312,  is 
avident;  nevertheless,  when  introduced  with  judgment,  it  will  produce  an  excellent 
effect. 

N.B.  It  is  not  necessary  that  the  cadence  which  closes  a  period  should 
always  be  so  complete  as  those  in  the  preceding  examples;  a  mere  progression  of 
the  chord  of  the  fundamental  7th  to  its  tonic  will  often  be  found  quite  sufficient 
to  satisfy  the  ear,  and  conduct  it  to  a  certain  degree  of  rest. 

The  national  air  of  "  God  save  the  Queen"  contains  two  periods;  the  first  of 
which  has  six,  and  the  last  eight  bars.  They  are  divided  into  sections  of  two 
bars  each. 


The  following  example  contains  a  period  of  six  bars,  divided  into  sections  of 
three  bars  each :  — 


Ex.  316. 


3t±:«; 


-0- •- 


1^ 


=t=F 


-* -m 3a 


24S 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 


It  has  been  stated  that  those  periods  which  consist  of  an  eqnal  number  of  bars 
are  the  most  natural  and  pleasing;  some  authors,  however,  in  order  to  product 
peculiar  effects,  do  not  scruple  to  depart  from  tliis  general  principle. 

The  period  in  the  following  example  consists  of  nine  bars;  the  first  four  bar& 
of  which  form  the  half  period,  and  the  second  portion  contains  five  bars;  — 


This  odd  number  of  bars,  when  first  heard,  produces  a  very  singular  effect: 
the  seventh  bar  in  this  period  appearing  to  be  uncalled  for,  and  as  if  it  were  inter- 
polated. It  is,  however,  only  necessary  to  play  this  charming  melody  a  few  times 
over,  to  convince  us  that  the  added  bar  is,  in  fact,  a  very  great  beauty. 

The  following  example  shows  how  very  effectively  Mozart  has  introduced 
periods  consisting  of  three  and  five  bars:  — 


The  first  five  bars  constitute  a  half  period.  The  period  which  follows  contains 
four  bars  divided  into  sections,  and  the  lastjieriod  consists  of  only  three  bars.  Had 
the  preceding  specimen  been  written  as  in  the  following  example,  we  should 
have  had  each  portion  equally  divided,  that  is,  — the  first  half  period  would  have 
contained /owr  bars  instead  of  five;  and  the  last  period /o»r  bars  instead  of  three; 
but  then,  that  spirited  and  energe4:ic, effect  which  the  unequal  division  of  the  bars 
at  (t  and  b)  is  calculated  to  produce,  would  have  been  totally  sacrificed.  (See  c 
and  d.) 


N.B.     Those  periods  which  consist  of  an  unequal  number  of  bars,  we  shal] 
call  ^^  irregular  periods.''^ 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 


2-ti) 


It  is  not  necessary  that  a  period  should  always  commence  with  the  accented 
part  of  the  bar;  on  the  contrary,  it  may  commence  with  a  part,  or  the  whole,  of 
the  unaccented  measure;  in  which  case  the  value  of  the  notes  at  the  end  of  the 
period,  when  united  with  those  at  the  beginning,  must  constitute  a  whole  bar. 

The  periods  in  the  following  example  commence  at  (a  and  h)  with  the  whole; 
at  (c)  with   three-eights;    and  at  (d)   with  one-half  of  the   unaccented  part  of 

the  bar. 

Mozart.  ^_^^ 


We  often  find  that  two  periods  in  immediate  succession  are  constructed,  so 
that  the  last  bar  of  the  one  immediately  preceding  is  also  the  first  bar  of  the  one 
succeeding. 


Although  the  interweaving  of  periods  in  this  manner  is  sometimes  very  effec- 
tive, it  can  only  be  considered  as  a  license,  and  ought  not  to  be  indulged  in  too 
frequently. 

When  the  expected  final  close  of  a  period  is  interrupted  by  either  an  imper- 
fect, or  any  of  the  false  cadences,  we  shall  call  it  "  an  irregular  period.^^ 

How  to  Construct  Melodies. 

The  pupil  may  now  construct  melodies  himself,  by  proceeding  thus:  —  Having 
determined  on  the  key  and  the  time  in  which  he  intends  to  write  (the  former  of 
which  we  shall  suppose  to  be  the  key  of  C  major,  and  the  latter,  short  common 
time,  2))  »6t  him  divide  the  staff  into  eight  bars;  on  the  first  and  last  of  which  let 
him  place  the  tonic,  and  on  the  fourth  bar  the  dominant.  This  simple  arran<Te- 
ment  may  be  considered  as  the  first  sketch  or  outline  of  a  whole  period,  divided 
in  the  middle  by  the  half  period. 

•  Ending  of  the  first  period  and  commencement  of  the  second. 


260 


Ex.  3*2. 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION, 
2.  3.  4.  5.  6. 


Whole  Period. 


The  unoccupied  bars  may  now  be  filled  up  with  different  fundamental  basBes, 
as  in  the  following  example:  — 

1.  2.  3.  4.  5.  6.  7.  8. 


Ex.323. 


m 


.-^  Half  Period. 


Whole  Period. 


The  pupil  is  here  supposed  to  have  chosen  the  dominant  for  the  second  bar, 
and  the  tonic  for  the  third,  thus  arriving  at  the  half  period  by  progression;  from 
hence  he  sets  out  again  with  the  tonic,  succeeded  by  the  subdominant  and  domi- 
nant. Having  now  selected  his  fundamental  basses,  let  him  extract  from  these 
his  inverted  basses,  which  will  produce  a  melody  in  the  bass.* 


/ 
Ex.324.  <J 

(S^Th !- 

6             £            1             6 

S    §    1 

6           I^S                          6             1             7 

-^ ^^p       |C     lf=      fa- 1 

^^ 

-f^J — \ — T    '^ 

I       .3 

J -^ 

-p — ^4 — \~V — \ ^— ■! 

br       3        6        1        , 

.fi — . 1— e 

^S^         -i 

1                1-    -^ 1 

0. 

1 1 — ^ y-i , "  __    '" 

-TP       Half  Period, 


Whole  Period. 


From  these  inverted  basses,  or  bass  melody,  must  be  extracted  a  counter- 
melody  for  the  soprano,  or  treble,  t 


Whole  Period. 


To  which  let  him  now  write  the  alto  and  tenor,  and  he  will  have  a  simple 
melody  harmonized  in  four  parts,  to  which  may  be  added,  if  necessary,  disso- 
nances and  passing  notes,  according  to  the  instructions  already  given  from  page 
72  to  174. 

•  The  pupil  will  be  greatly  assisted  in  selecting  his  inverted  basses  by  again  perusing  whal 
has  been  said  upon  that  subject,  commencing  at  page  103.  t  See  Ex.  206. 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 


251 


Whole  Period. 


Although  the  above  specimen  is,  for  the  sake  of  simplicity,  constructed  in 
common  time,  2,  yet,  that  it  may  be  changed  with  very  good  effect  into  any  other 
measure  is  evident,  according  to  the  principles  laid  down  from  Ex.  293  to  304. 

In  the  following  example,  the  same  melody  has  been  altered  into  short  com- 
pound common  time,  f.*  No  change  in  the  harmony  has  taken  place  (except  that 
of  its  being  extended),  as  will  be  seen  by  examining  the  fundamental  and  inverted 
basses. 


Ex.  327. 


Period. 


In  the  following  example  the  original  melody  (Ex.  326),  is  harmonized  in  the 
minor  mode.  Dissonances  are  added,  with  passing  and  auxiliary  notes,  and  the 
harmony  is  extended.  At  (a)  the  second  inversion  has  been  chosen  instead  of  the 
fundamental  bass. 


•  see  Ex.  300. 


t  Accented  passing  note,  see  Ex.  225  (c). 


252 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 


F-ts^E^ 


Ex.  328. 


Whole  Period. 


The  same  melody  as  in  the  preceding  example  is  written  for  the  pianoforte, 
in  the  style  of  variations. 

rinf. 


Ex.  329. 


*-     -■•■  -»!-• 


HP^ 


r^ 


i2=d= 


-rd- 


1_ 


dim. 


,      ^^ 


HARMONY  AKD  COMPOSITION. 


253 


In  the  second  bar  of  the  following  example,  a  slight  alteration  has  been  made 
in  the  inverted  bass,  by  which  the  soprano  is  affected.  The  passing  and  auxiliary 
notes  are  here  introduced  chieHy  in  the  bass.  The  pupil  is  recommended  to  com- 
pare the  simple  inverted  bass  (at  o)  with  the  florid  one  (at  b),  either  of  which  may 
be  used. 

Andante  esp. 


Ex.  330. 


^^ 


-4- 


3s 


^^:^^^ 


:tf^^^=^^^ 


Whole  Period 


The  following  example  exhibits   the  former  melody,  written  in  lonq  common 


time: 


Ex.  331, 


,  Moderate. 


The  melody  of  example  328,  is,  in  the  following  example,  divided  and  dis- 
persed between  all  the  parts,  showing  how  imitation  maybe  thus  effected,  without 
any  alteration  whatever  in  the  original  fundamental  harmony. 

•  See  Ex.  SOC. 


254 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 


From  1  to  4,  the  melody  appears  in  the  2nd  violin;*  at  5  and  6,  in  the  tenor; 
at  7,  in  the  2ud  violin;  and  at  8,  9,  and  10,  in  the  1st  violin.  The  two  first  bars  of 
the  melody  (as  they  appear  in  the  2nd  violin),  are  imitated  by  the  bass  in  bars 
3  and  4. 

The  student  is  requested  to  examine  this  specimen  with  care  and  attention,  as 
he  will  find  it  not  only  improving,  but  very  interesting. 
Ex.  332.    Andante  esp. 


1st  Violin 
or  Soprano. 


/^ 


2nd  Violin 
or  Soprano. 


Tenor  or 
Alto. 


Violoncello 
or  Bass. 


Fund. 
Bass. 


^^gEJg^^^^ 


i^g 


^^ 


^^ 


-tt(=^ 


^W 


^^ 


Half  Period. 


Whole  Period. 


=1 


•  The  above  example,  it  will  be  perceived,  is  arranged  for  two  violins,  tenor  and  violon- 
cello ;  the  student  will,  however,  observe  that  this  arrangement  does  not  in  the  least  affect  the 
harmony,  which  may  be  performed  by  two  sopranos,  tenor  and  bass. 


HARMONY  AND   COMPOSITION.  255 

It  is  presumed  that  the  pupil,  by  this  time,  will  have  formed  a  tolerably  just 
idea  how  a  period  may  be  constructed,  and  when  once  constructed,  how  variety 
may  subsequently  be  produced,  by  either  altering  the  inverted  basses,  employing 
different  passing  and  auxiliary  notes,  dLssonances,  etc.,  and  lastly,  by  changing 
the  rhythm,  or  measure  of  time,  in  which  the  melody  was  originally  written. 

Let  him  recollect,  that  all  the  different  effects  which  have  been  produced  during 
the  last  nine  examples,  have  arisen  solely  out  of  the  sketch  or  outline  in  Ex.  323,  and 
that  no  other  fundamental  basses,  or  inversions,  have  been  employed  during  that  time, 
but  those  found  in  Ex.  .325;*  and  when  he  also  reflects  that  many  other  bass  melo- 
dies may  yet  be  extracted  from  the  same  fundamental  basses,  and  that  these 
melodies  again  will  produce  correspondent  melodies  in  the  soprano  and  inner 
parts, — he  will  easily  perceive  that,  in  the  preceding  examples  (however  simple  the 
original  materials),  the  subject  is  very  far  from  being  exhausted,  and  that  much. 
much  more  may  yet  be  done  with  it.  This  fact  ought  to  stimulate  the  pupil  to 
exert  his  own  ingenuity  in  discovering  other  bass  melodies  from  the  same  funda- 
mental basses;  and  should  he  in  the  beginning  find  some  trifling  difficulty  in  suc- 
ceeding according  to  his  wishes,  a  very  little  practice  will  convince  him  that  this 
difficulty  exists  more  in  imagination  than  in  reality. 

If.  then,  so  much  variety  can  be  produced  from  the  simple  materials  exhibited  in 
Ex.  323,  what  may  not  be  produced  xohen  the  first  outline  (Ex.  322),  is  filled  up  with 
different  progressions  of  fundamental  basses. 

The  following  example  exhibits  at  one  view  a  variety  of  specimens  of  filling 
up  the  original  outline  with  different  fundamental  basses  and  inversions. 

At  II,  we  arrive  at  a  half  period  of  modulation,  from  which  we  proceed  by 
a  modulation  to  C,  and  from  thence  to  D  minor. 

N.B.     A  and  D,  in  bars  1  and  2,  are  modified  basses. 

At  III,  a,  half  period  by  modulation;  preceded  in  the  second  bar  by  a  modula- 
tion to  the  relative  minor. 

At  IV,  a  halx  period  by  modulation;  preceded  by  a  false  cadence  at  bar  3. 

At  V.  a  lialf  period  by  progression;  after  which  a  modulation  to  the  relative 
minor  takes  place. 

At  VI,  a  half  period  by  modulation;  this  modulation  has  previously  been 
effected  at  bar  2. 

VII,  needs  no  explanation. 

•  Except  in  one  single  instance,  where  the  second  inversion  Is  chosen  instead  of  the  fund* 
mental  bass,  and  which  is  scarcely  worth  noticiuK. 


256 


HARMONY   AND  COMPOSITION. 


Ex.  333. 


$    «« 


Whole  Period. 


The  pupil  may  take  any  of  the  above  bass  melodies,  and  proceed  as  already 
shown  in  the  preceding  example. 

In  the  following  example  (334)  the  dominant  of  the  relative  minor  has  been 
selected  to  conclude  the  half  period.  At  I,  we  arrive  there  by  progression;  a  mod- 
ulation to  the  tonic  of  the  relative  minor  having  previously  taken  place  in  the 
second  bar.     At  II,  we  arrive  at  the  half  period  by  modulation. 


Ex.  334 

II. 


$6        t 


t* 


\y,         4 


^=^ 


^m 


g"    ag>'  I' 


ES^l 


^^F- 


^^ 


^i-i- 


=!=t 


i-J-L-^.-fc 


1 


^^ 


Half  Period. 


Whole  Period. 


Here  follows  an  example  where  the  half  period  ends  with  the  relative  minoi 
of  the  subdominant. 


•  See  Ex.  265  (a). 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 


257 


Ex.  335- 


Whole  Period. 


In  the  following  sketch  the  half  period  ends  with  the  relative  minor: — 


Ex.  335i 


J 


Half  Period. 


\\'hole  Period. 


Heretofore,  our  sketches  have  consisted  of  one  period  or  part  only;  the  fol- 
lowing example  exhibits  such  as  consist  of  two  parts. 

In  sketching  outlines  of  the  first  period,  it  will  be  perceived  that  nothing 
decisive  has  been  settled  with  respect  to  the  key  in  which  the  half  period  is  to 
end;  that  arrangement  shall  hereafter  be  left  to  the  judgment  and  taste  of  the 
pupil  himself;  for  the  present  we  shall  only  point  out  how  he  may  proceed  on 
such  occasions. 

Ex.  336.  ,  ,   *  '^^         ,  g  H 


< 


m^-. 


rnr^ 


% 


^ 


EEE5 


^ 


n 


^ 


ZZ±L 


-t=: 


-(J- 


P^^ 


n^ 


-^ 


«« 


=;e=q=^ 


^ 


^lE 


-s*        f^ —     gy- 


X=^~ 


3^=fz=±:<=: 


I 


ib) 


^S 


Half  Period. 


First  whole  Period  o*'  Part. 


Half  Period. 


Second  whole  Period  or  Part. 


•  Ex.  264.    t  Deceptive  Modulation,  Ex.  269.    t  Ex.  261.    §  Deceptive  Modulation,  Ex.  267. 


258 


HARMONY  AND   COMPOSITION. 


At  (a)  we  have  modulated  to  the  relative  minor. 

At  (b) to  the  dominant  of  the  relative  minor. 

At  (c) to  the  dominant  of  the  original  key; 

which   latter  will  produce  rather  a  monotonous  effect,  as  the  same  modulation 
occurs  again  in  the  eighth  bar. 

In  the  second  part,  the  half  period  is  made  to  fall  upon  the  dominant  of  the 
original  key;  this  arrangement  became  absolutely  necessary  in  consequence  of  the 
several  modulations  which  were  introduced  after  the  lirst  half  period,  and  by 
which  the  ear  was  imperceptibly  led  away  from  the  original  key.  The  dominant, 
however,  in  the  12th  bar,  is  calculated  to  recall  to  our  recollection  the  original 
key;  and  thus  our  ear  is  gradually  jjrepared  for  its  re-introduction. 

Hitherto  our  periods  have  consisted  of  eight  bars  only ;  but  by  the  introduc- 
tion of  tlie  false  cadence  at  (a),  and  the  irregular  false  cadence  at  (b),  the  final 
close  on  the  eighth  bar  has  been  avoided,  by  which  these  periods  are  lengthened 
to  ten  bars.  •  ■ 


Ex.  337. 


^ 


t  fi-  -p-  fri- 


gE^^E^EEg 


^ 


Mt^ 


Half  Period. 


Whole  Period. 


m 


3^ 


H 


^g 


«i 


gg^v=^ 


-^ 


§ 


(6) 


^ 


m 


(«) 


The  following  questions  very  naturally  present  themselves  at  this  time,  viz. : 
suppose  I  commence  in  a  certain  key,  in  what  key  .shall  I  conclude  mij  first  period  and 
commence  my  second,  etc.  f  —  In  answer  to  these  questions,  we  shall  proceed  to 
give  the  following  suggestions  as  general  rules.  Let  us  suppose  that  the  melody 
is  to  consist  of  sixteen  bars,  divided  into  two  parts  of  eight  bars  each: 

If  the  key  is  C  major,  we  can  end  t\\G  first  part  — 

First:  In  the  tonic,  C.  Second:  In  the  dominant,  G.  Third:  In  the  relative  minor,  A 
Fourth :  In  the  dominant  of  the  relative  minor,  E. 

Should  the  key  be  minor  (suppose  C  minor)  we  can  end  the  first  part  — 

First:  In  the  tonic,  C.  Second:  In  the  dominant,  G.  Third:  In  G  minor  (the  5th  of  th«i 
original  key).    Fourth:  In  the  relative  major  of  the  original  key.  E-flat. 


HAKMONY  AND  COMPOSITION.  259 

FIEST  CASE. 

r  Then  the  half  period  may  end 

\st.  "With  the  dominant  by  modulation    .  .  .  G. 

J    2nd.  "      "    suhdominant  by  modulation    .  F. 

Suppose  the  key  is  maoor,  and  theirs*  part  ^   ^rd.  "      "   relative  minor  of  the 

ends  in  the  tonic?  subdominant.    D. 

I  «ft.  "      "    relative  minor  of  the 

'^  original  key,    A. 

The  first  part  having  been  thus  disposed  of,  the  second  part  may  commence  with 

r  The  half  period  may  end 

The  dominant,  G,  at  once,  or  with  a  mod-  J  1st.     With  the  relative A. 

ulation  to  it.  J  2nd.  Dominant  of  the  relative  minor,  E  major. 

I  3rd.    Dominant  of  the  original  key, .  •  G. 


The  second  part  may  commence  with  the 


Again : 

In  that  case  the  half  period  may  end 


dominant  of  the  relative  minor  (E  major.) 


{1st. 
2nd. 


With  the  relative  minor A. 


2nd.  Dominant  of  the  original  key G. 

Again : 


The  second  part  may  conunence  with  the  1      Here  let  the  pupil  choose  the  key  of  the  hall 
dominant  of  the  relative  minor  of  the  subdomi-   /"  period  himself. 
nant,  A  major.  j 

SECOND  CASE. 

The  half  period  may  end 
1st.     In  the  dominant,  proceeding  there  by 
progression. 
2nd.  In  the  relative  minor. 


When  the  first  part  ends  in  the  dominant,  G 


The  first  part  having  been  thus  disposed  of,  the  second  may  commence 

Is*.    With  the  dominant,  G.  (      Here  let  the  pupil  again  choose  the  key  ol 

2tid.  With  a  modulation  to  the  relative  minor.     )  the  half  period  himself. 


THIRD  CASE. 


The  half  period  may  end 


J    1st.    With  the  dominant,  (i :  proceeding  there 


When  the  first  part  ends  with  the  relative  J   either  by  progression  or  modulation. 
™ioor-  j      2nd.  With  the  subdominant,  F, 

V    Srd.  With  the  dominant,  G. 

The  second  part  may  commence 


1st.     With  the  relative  minor,  A. 
2nd.    With  a  modulation  to  the  subdominant. 
3rd.  With  the  dominant  of  the  relative  minor, 
E  major. 


Uh.  Modulation  to  the  relative  minor. 
The  half  period  may  end  as  the  judgment 
of  the  pupil  directs. 


A  melody  which  originally  consists  of  only  eight  bars  may  be  extended  to  10, 
12,  16,  or  a  greater  number,  by  repeating  some  sections  of  2,  4,  6,  or  any  other  even 
number  of  bars. 

The  following  example  is  a  melody  consisting  of  eight  bars.  At  (h)  it  is 
extended  to  ten,  by  twice  repeating  the  last  crotchet  of  the  fourth  bar  with  the 
three  crotchets  immediately  following.  At  (c)  the  same  melody  is  extended  to 
iixteen  bars,  by  repeating  the  last  six  bars  found  at  (h). 


260 


HARMONY   AND  COMFOSITION. 


Ex.  338.  E«^-^t=^ 


fels: 


"^r^-fTr^^^^^^^^^^i 


I 


fes 


m^^ 


:^^5ic 


r^zpz 


tt=tt 


m 


4.  5 


^•::-«=^    J  I 


^ 


■?-(-•—* — -  ^~r*^ 


?ci;^ 


l=p:=f=:3; 


g^^g 


^i^^ 


10. 


11. 


12. 


13. 


14. 


15. 


=t:ir:t. 


^^ 


tt=t: 


16. 


All  these  additional  bars,  however,  are  not  intended  to  be  introduced  into  the 
soprano  only;  some  of  them  are  also  to  appear  alternately  in  the  alto,  tenor,  or 
bass;  and  as  these  parts  will,  in  consequence,  be  obliged  to  interchange  places, 
a  series  of  imitations  will  be  produced. 

In  order  to  show  the  practical  utility  of  this  extension,  and  how  these  reiter- 
ated sections  (which  in  the  last  example  occasioned  rather  a  monotonous  effect) 
are  here  employed  to  produce  imitations,  let  us  harmonize  the  preceding  melody 
in  four  parts. 

Andante.       tr  |  ~  I       \~         — 


Ex.  339.^ 


S^^Ji^3E^="gF^^ 


1=6 


;^aE^ 


t=^- 


^#=T=3=3^^^g=uj:ia:g=^ii=^^j 


^■ 


^ 


g^^^EB^g 


EEEE 


^Et^ 


2. 


^^^-P^^J    i,J    Fi=^ 


=^:g^ 


4.         5, 


=Q*i3 


J 


HARMONY   AND   COMPOSITION. 


261 


The  letters  a,  b,  c,  have  been  added  to  the  soprano,  alto,  and  bass,  in  order 
that  the  interchanging  of  the  parts  in  the  above  example,  by  which  the  imita- 
tions are  effected,  may  be  more  easily  perceived. 

At  5,  the  section  for  imitation  (marked  o)  appears  in  the  soprano  as  originally 
written.  At  6,  it  is  imitated  by  the  alto  an  octave  lower;  and  at  7,  by  the  bass. 
While  the  alto  and  bass  thus  successively  imitate  the  soprano,  the  latter,  at  the 
same  time,  at  6,  imitates  the  bass  (b),  and  then  the  alto  (c). 

At  7,  the  tenor  also  partially  imitates  the  bass  (6).  From  10  to  16,  the  parts 
continue  to  imitate  each  other  with  still  more  variety;  for  the  sections  in  tlie 
soprano  and  bass,  at  5,  appear  at  11  in  the  tenor  and  bass,  and  are  imitated  at  12  by 
the  soprano  and  alto.  And  while  at  13  the  sections  a,  b,  appear  once  more  in  tlie 
bass  and  tenor  (but  inverted),*  the  soprano  at  the  same  time  again  imitates  the  alto 
(c)  an  octave  higher.  Observe  also  that  the  melody  in  the  teyior,  from  7  to  10  inclu- 
sive, has,  at  13,  been  transferred  to  the  alto. 

It  will  be  observed  that  hitherto  the  imitation  has  always  commenced  upon 
the  same  measure  of  the  bar  as  the  subject  itself;  in  the  following  example, 
however,  the  case  is  different;  for,  although  the  subjects  for  imitation  (which  here 
appear  in  the  soprano  and  alto)  do  commence  on  the  second  crotchet  of  the  unac- 
cented part  of  the  bar,  as  in  the  preceding  example,  yet  they  are  not  answered 
by  the  tenor  and  bass  on  the  same  measure,  as  heretofore,  but  on  the  second 
crotchet  of  the  accented  part  of  the  bar.  Thus  a  mixed  rhythm  is  introduced,  by 
which  a  new  and  still  more  striking  effect  is  produced. 

~^.       in 


i>. 


*  By  wliich  tlie  two  original  parts  in  bar  5  proceed  by  what  is  called  "  double  counterpoint " 
In  the  octave.    See  Ex.  137. 


262 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 


The  parts  which  appear  in  tlie  soprano  and  alto,  at  I,  are  here  transferred  to 
the  tenor  and  bass,  by  which  a  mutual  interchange  of  all  the  parts  is  effected. 


The  alto  and  tenor,  at  II,  have  here  interchanged  places;  the  former  being 
written  an  octave  lower,  and  the  latter  an  octave  higher.  The  soprano  and  bass 
remain  unchanged. 

— ^1     ^f 


^1 


III.  / 


There  is  not  perhaps  a  more  fertile  subject,  and  one  which  might  be  more 
dilated  upon  than  that  upon  which  we  have  just  been  treating.  If,  however,  the 
student  possesses  a  little  perseverence  and  industry,  it  will  be  found  that  enough 
has  been  said  to  enable  him  to  pursue  his  object  with  pleasure  and  benefit. 

In  the  meantime  he  is  requested  to  examine  and  compare  the  preceding  speci- 
mens with  care  and  attention  (commencing  from  Ex.  338) ;  and  here  he  will  see 
how  few  materials*  are  sometimes  requisite  to  enable  us,  by  a  little  ingenuity,  to 
produce  variety  and  pleasing  effects.  This  truth  will  be  still  more  illustrated  and 
confirmed  when  we  commence  analyzing  the  compositions  of  some  of  our  best 
and  most  classical  authors,  which  we  shall  do  presently;  preparatory  to  this,  it 
will  be  necessary  to  give  a  few  hints  with  respect  to  what  is  called  the  strict  and 
free  styles  of  writing. 

In  the  truly  strict  style,  four  sorts  of  notes  only  (that  is,  with  respect  to  their 
duration)  are  allowed;  for  example:  if  the  longest  be  a  semibreve,  then  the 
shortest  will  be  a  quaver,  the  latter  of  which  can  be  employed  only  as  a  passing 
note. 

•  From  these  few  notes  are  derived  all  the  foregoing  imitations  and  effects:— 


See  Example  338.  bar  6. 


HAEMOISrY  AND   COMPOSITION. 


263 


All  dissonances,  in  which  is  included  the  fundamental  7th,  require  to  be  pre- 
pared upon  the  unaccented,  and  struck  upon  the  accented  part  of  the  bar.  No 
octaves  or  Jifths  on  the  accented  part  of  a  bar  as  exhibited  in  Ex  285  (k),  are  per- 
mitted, nor  may  they  be  thus  prevented.  The  note  of  preparation  must  not  be  of 
less  duration  than  the  dissonance;  and  to  add  still  more  to  the  seriousness  of 
the  style,  these  dissonances  must  be  suspensions.*  Consecutive  major  thirds, 
whether  proceeding  diatonically,  or  by  skips,  as  well  as  all  extraneous  modular 
tions,  or  progressions, t  are  prohibited. 

In  the  following  example  at  (1)  the  note  C  in  the  alto  is  succeeded  immedi- 
ately by  C-sharp  in  the  inverted  bass;  this  is  called  "  a  false  relation  between  two 
parts,"  and  is  forbidden.  A  false  relation  is  exhibited  at  (2)  between  G  in  the 
tenor,  and  G-sharp  in  the  bass;  and  at  (3)  between  the  soprano  and  inverted  bass. 


Ex.341. 


These  are  a  few  of  the  leading  features  characterizing  the  truly  strict  style; 
which  style  of  writing,  however,  is  now  generally  considered  as  antiquated,  and 
almost  entirely  laid  aside. 

In  the  free  style  many  licenses  are  permitted  which  would  be  quite  inadmis- 
sible in  the  style  just  described.  For  instance:  dissonances  may  be  introduced 
upon  the  accented  or  unaccented  part  of  the  bar,  prepared  or  unprepared. 

These  dissonances,  when  introduced  thus,  are  sometimes  written  as  at  (a)  but 
perfoi'med  as  at  (6),  and  are  called  appoggiaturas. 


Ex.342 


It  has  already  been  explained  that  dissonances  should  resolve  upon  the  same 
fundamental  bass  on  which  they  are  heard.** 

*  From  these  few  notes  are  derived  all  the  foregoing  imitations  and  ellcpts. 


^m 


See  Example  338,  bar  5. 
t  Progressions  of  sequences  are  therefore  particularly  suited  to  the  strict  style.    See  Ex 
277  CO  284.  t  See  examples  69,  70.  **  Page  77. 


264 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 


Ill  the  free  style,  however,  dissonances,  instead  of  resolving  upon  the  sa»ie 
bass,  may  resolve  upon  another  bass,  provided  that  the  intervals  of  the  resolved 
discords  form  either  the  common  chord,  fundamental  Tth,  or  9th,  with  that  bass ; 
so  that,  in  point  of  fact,  the  bass  on  which  the  dissonance  should  have  resolved  is 
altogether  omitted,  and  another  substituted.  This  will  be  better  understood  if 
we  peruse  the  following  example,  where,  at  I,  the  dissonances  receive  as  usual, 
and  at  II,  they  have  been  resolved  upon  a,  new  bass.  This  may  be  called  a 
licensed  resolution  of  dissonances,  and  employed  with  great  effect  on  various 
occasions. 


ANALYZATION. 

It  is  both  instructive  and  amusing  to  trace  the  gradual  and  almost  imper- 
ceptible change  which  has  taken  place  in  the  compositions  of  eminent  writers 
since  the  time  of  Corelli  to  the  present;  and  how,  with  nearly  the  same  materials, 
one  author  has  constructed  works  so  very  different,  with  regard  to  their  general 
style  and  effect,  from  that  of  others,  that  one  would  scarcely  believe  they  had 
emanated  from  the  same  source.  With  the  peculiarities  and  excellencies  of  the 
works  of  these  great  masters,  then,  the  student  should  make  himself  acquainted; 
and  as  this  can  only  be  accomplished  by  analyzing  them,*  we  shall  detail  the 
method  to  be  pursued  on  this  occasion;  and  in  order  that  we  may  preserve  regu- 
larity and  method  in  this  branch  of  the  study,  let  us  divide  our  materials  into  the 
following  parts :  — 

The  Key,  whether  major  or  minor. 

The  Time. 

Fundamental  Basses. 

Modulation  and  Fundamental  7ths. 

Dissonances. 

Passing  Notes,  Auxiliary  Notes,  and  Secondary  Harmony. 

Periods. 

Sections  and  Imitation. 

Each  of  these  several  parts  shall  be  explained  as  we  proceed. 


•  The  pupil  will  be  much  assisted  in  this  study  by  perusing  the  work  called  "  Practical  and 
Theoretical  Studies,"  being  a  selection  from  the  compositions  of  Corelii,  Handel,  Haydn,  Mozart, 
Beethoven,  Clementi,  etc.,  arranged  for  the  pianoforte,  and  analyzed  by  the  author  of  this  work. 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 


26S 


The  composition  which  has  been  selected  for  analyzation  is  the  first  concerto 
of  Corelli,  and  commences  in  the  key  of  D  major. 

Q.     How  do  we  know  that  it  is  that  key? 

A.     Because  D  major  has  two  sharps. 

Q.  But  as  the  relative  minor  B  requires  also  two  sharps,  might  it  not  be  the 
latter? 

A.  No;  because  the  first  chord  then  should  have  been  B  minor,  being  the 
key  chord  ;*  besides,  between  the  7th  and  8th  of  the  scale,  a  semitone  must  be 
found.  Had  the  key  been  B  minor,  the  note  A-natural  being  the  7th  of  the  scale 
of  that  key,  could  not  have  been  admitted:  it  must  have  been  A-sharp.t  This 
not  being  the  case,  the  key  is  decidedly  D  major. 

The  time  is  long  common  time.  J 

Let  as  now  proceed  to  find  the  fundamental  basses,  that  the  ground  upon 
which  the  superstructure  of  the  present  work  rests  may  be  clearly  established. 


^^^^^^^^^^^ 


•  See  Ex.  160. 


t  See  Ex.  144. 


t  See  Ex.  296. 


266 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 


21.        22.  23. 

f-.       Allegro. 


24. 


25. 


26. 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 


267 


35.  36.        37.        38.     39.  40. 

Adagio. 


41.  42, 

Allegro. 


47. 


48. 


49. 


50. 


51. 


52. 


Efe? 


-J — I — — -I — nn^ — — , 


?^^"=^ 


^=^ 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 


53.        54.     55.  56.  57.  58. 

^       Adagio.  Allegro.  -    ^  -   . 


i 


gi^^^^i^ 


59. 


^^ 


is3^ 


^-^ 


6  4        3 


S 


S 


^__ 


P 


^^^^^^ 


^^l^g^^iP 


^=3E 


The  composition  commences  with  the  common  chord  of  D;  D,  therefore,  is 
the  fundamental  bass,  which  we  place  under  the  chord. 

N.B.  The  notes  E  and  G  in  the  first  and  second  violins  are  accented  passing 
notes*. 

If  we  examine  the  notes  of  the  four  parts  (2),  we  find  that  they  collectively 
produce  the  chord  of  A :  the  note  A,  therefore,  we  place  as  fundamental  bass  under 
that  chord. 

C,  in  the  bass,  being  the  3rd  of  the  chord,  consequently  produces  the  first 
inversion;  viz.,  the  chord  of  the  6th. 

N,5.  The  note  B,  in  the  first  violin,  is  an  accented  passing  note. 

At  (3)  the  chord  B  minor  ai-ises  from  a  modified  basst  on  the  first  of  the  scale, 
which  is  here  used  fundamentally!.  The  second  chord  at  (3),  we  find  to  be  the 
chord  of  the  fundamental  7th,  to  E.  The  7th  is  in  the  first  violin;  the  5th,  in  the 
second  violin;  the  8th  in  the  tenor;  and  the  3rd,  in  the  bass,  producing  the  chord 
of  the  I ;  the  note  E,  therefore,  as  fundamental  bass,  is  likewise  placed  under  the 
harmony,  as  exhibited  in  the  example. 

N.B.  The  note  A,  in  the  bass,  is  an  unaccented  passing  note.  E,  in  the  same 
part,  as  well  as  E  and  B  in  the  first  violin,  are  notes  arising  out  of  secondary 
harmony§. 

Continuing  thus  to  proceed  upon  the  same  principle,  D  will  be  the  fundamen- 
tal bass  at  (5),  E  the  fundamental  bass  at  (7),  and  F-sharp  at  (9). 

The  inverted  bass  E,  at  (10),  arises  from  a  modified  bass,  and  is  an  imperfect 
common  chord ||.  From  29  to  35,  the  harmony  arises  out  of  a  progression  of 
sequences  of  5  61[.  That  they  are  sequences  may  be  inferred  from  the  uninter- 
rupted and  regular  ascending  progression  of  the  1st  and  2nd  violins  by  imitation. 

N.B.  Tlie  notes  G  and  B  in  the  bass  (23),  are  unaccented  auxiliary  notes,  and 
C.  at  (24),  an  accented  auxiliary  note. 

The  harmony  from  49  to  52,  arises  from  a  progression  of  sequences  of  7ths; 
this  may  be  proved  by  the  regular  and  uniform  ascending  4ths.  and  descending 
5ths  of  the  fundamental  bass,  which  progression,  when  divested  of  its  auxiliary 
notes  will  appear  thus**: 


•  See  Ex.  221.       t  See  Ex.  268.       t  See  remarks  on  modified  basses,  "thirdly,"  page  223. 

§  See  Ex.  237.       U  See  Ex.  269,  also  page  22a  "secondly."  tSee  Ex.  285 

•*  See  Ex.  273(e). 


HARMONY  AXD  COMPOSITION. 


269 


Now,  if  we  add  the  harmony  which  the  progression  of  these  fundamental  basses 
will  admit  of  (a),  and  then  compare  that  harmony  with  the  1st  and  2nd  violins  in 
the  original,  the  similarity  will  immediately  appear;  for  it  is  only  necessary  to 
suppose  that  the  quaver  rest  in  the  first  violin  stands  in  place  of  the  7th,  and  that 
this  7th  previous  to  its  resolution  (according  to  secondary  harmonies),  has  pro- 
ceeded to  a  part  of  its  chord  (b),  and  the  legitimacy  of  the  fundamental  basses  and 
sequences  from  48  to  52  is  established.     See  also  example  242. 


U^l      '      ' 


J— J  J       ,       I ^- 


-.b-G 


-3 7 1-3 7- 


LpS 7 


7  7         J- 


The  student  may  now  continue  to  find  the  fundamental  basses  as  already 
shown,  and  place  them  under  the  harmony,  as  exhibited  in  the  example. 

Let  us  now  proceed  to  examine  the  modulations  which  have  been  introduced. 

The  movement  commences  in  the  key  of  D,  in  which  it  continues  until  (3), 
when  a  modulation  to  the  dominant  takes  place,  indicated  by  G-sharp  in  the 
inverted  bass,  which  ascends  half  a  tone  to  (a)*,  E  being  a  note  of  secondary  har- 
mony. 

At  5,  a  modulation  to  D,  which  is  indicated  by  G-natural  in  the  inverted  bassf 
at  4,  At  6,  a  modulation  to  G  is  indicated  by  C-natural  in  the  first  violin.  At  8,  a 
modulation  to  A,  and  at  10,  to  the  relative  minor,  both  of  which  are  indicated  by 
the  inverted  bass.  From  12  to  17.  various  modulations  have  been  introduced, 
which  require  no  further  explanation,  as  the  student  will  easily  discover  them 
himself. 

Dissonances,  t 

As  the  fundamental  bass  from  3  to  4,  .5  to  6,  7  to  8,  &c.,  ascends  by  4ths,  or 
falls  by  5ths,  we  are  enabled  to  introduce  the  dissonances  of  the  yth  or  4th. 

Q.     What  dissonance  has  the  composer  employed?    A.     The  9th, 

Q.  How,  and  where  is  it  prepared?  A.  It  is  prepared  at  3  by  the  5th  in  the 
second  violin,  where  it  resolves  into  the  octave. 

A  question  naturally  presents  itself  here:  Why  did  not  the  composer  intro- 
duce the  9th  and  4th  alternately,  as  the  progression  of  the  fundamental  bass  admit- 
ted of  both  these  dissonances?  —  thus: 


1=^ 


It  would  have  obviated  that  monotony  which  must  naturally  arise  by  employ 
ing  the  same  dissonance  so  frequently  and  consecutively. 


•  See  Ex.  167.       t  See  Ex.  168.       t  See  Ex.  79,  85. 


270  HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 

Or,  by  employing  both  dissonances  together,  thus: 


ifi^^r:^^^^^ 


:&c. 


It  would  certainly  have  produced  more  variety  and  interest.  In  that  case, 
however,  the  imitations  whicli  appear  between  the  first  and  second  violin,  from  a 
to  IT,  must  necessarily  have  been  omitted. 

N.B.  The  process  of  examining  the  motion  of  the  fundamental  bass,  as 
regards  the  introduction  of  dissonances,  may  thus  be  continued  to  the  end  of  the 
composition. 

That  the  composer  should  have  figured  the  bass  at  32  with  the  dissonance  of 
the  9th,  without  subsequently  introducing  that  dissonance,  may  seem  strange. 
This  seeming  omission  will  be  explained  when  we  arrive  at  Imitation;  at  present, 
we  must  consider  the  quaver  rest  in  the  second  violin  to  stand  in  the  place  of  the 
dissonance,  as  pointed  cmt  by  the  small  notes,  and  which  has  already  been  ex- 
plained when  treating  on  fundamental  basses.  The  same  occurrence  takes  place 
at  38,  49,  50,  51,  &c.  At  33,  the  9th  has  been  prepared  by  the  3rd;  at  34,  by  the  5th, 
but  resolved  into  the  3rd*.  At  11,  the  fundamental  bass  having  ascended  aotht, 
the  dissonances  of  the  |  have  been  introduced. 

Q.     How  and  where  have  these  dissonances  been  prepared? 

A.  The  4th  has  been  prepared  in  the  second  violin  by  the  8th,  and  the  5th  in 
the  first  violin  by  the  3rd. 

Periods, 

From  1  to  4  comprises  a  half  period  by  modulation^.  From  5  to  6,  7  to  8,  9  to 
10,  are  sections  of  modulations§.  The  period,  consisting  of  six  bars,  concludes  at 
12  in  the  relative  minor  of  the  original  key.  From  13  to  20,  are  sections  of  modu- 
lation similar  to  the  preceding;  from  !<.■  to  22  a  half  period  by  modulation.  Here, 
in  order  to  give  more  dignity  and  consequence  to  the  half  period,  the  author  adds 
an  odd  bar,  by  which  it  is  made  to  contain  five  bars. 

From  23  to  37,  is  a  half  period,  divided  into  sections  by  modulation  and  pro- 
gression. From  24  to  25,  26  to  27,  are  sections  of  modulation.  From  30  to  31,  32  to 
33,  &c.,  are  short  sections  by  progressions,  ending  at  37  with  a  half  period  by  pro- 
gression.  From  39  to  42,  a  short  period  ending  in  F-sharp  minor.  From  43  to  48, 
&c.,  sections  of  modulation;  from  thence  to  53,  sections  by  progression. 

Imitation.  \[ 

The  subject  at  5  and  6,  in  the  first  violin,  is  repeated  at  7,  8,  9,  and  10,  by  the 
same  instrument  each  time  a  whole  tone  higher^.  Instead  of  which,  had  7,  8,  been 
written  in  the  second  violin,  and  9,  10,  in  the  tenor,  it  would  have  produced  imita- 
tion, and  been  less  monotonous. 

At  23,  the  first  violin  commences  a  short  subject  on  the  accented  part  of  the 
bar,  which  is  imitated  or  answered  by  the  second  violin,  on  the  unaccented  part  of 
the  bar,  in  the  unison.  This  strict  imitation  continues  uninterruptedly  until  we 
arrive  at  30,  where  the  imitation,  as  far  as  rhythm  is  concerned,  still  continues;  but 
the  intervals  are  different  in  their  progression  from  those  of  the  first  violin.  Here, 
•  See  Ex.  169  (b).       t  See  Ex.  85.        t  See  Ex.  308.  309.        §  Sec  Kx.  310  (r) 

V  See  Ex.  232.  ir  A  similar  progression  of  sequences,  ascending  whole  tones,  will  be  founa 
In  Handel's  Hallelujah  Chorus,  to  the  words  "King  of  Kings." 


HAEMONY  AND  COMPOSITION.  271 

chat  the  imitation  might  be  pursued  in  rythmical  order,  it  became  necessary  to 
suppress  the  dissonances  at  32  and  33,  of  which  mention  has  already  been  made*. 
The  imitation  from  42  to  48,  is  similar  to  that  already  described  from  23  to  34. 

It  may  seem  strange  that  the  3rd  of  the  dominant  in  the  first  vielin  (at  41),  in- 
stead of  proceeding  to  its  8th,  should  have  ascended  a  9th;  but  this  was  necessary, 
in  order  that  that  part  (viz.,  the  1st  violin)  might  commence  |the  subject  of  imita- 
tion. It  will  be  perceived  that  the  third  of  the  tonic  chord  of  42  has  been  omitted; 
such  omissions,  however,  are  very  frequently  to  be  discovered  in  the  works  of 
ancient  composers,  particularly  when  closing  in  minor  keys. 

The  parts  cross  each  other  sometimes  very  unwarrantably:  at  1  and  39,  the 
second  violin  and  tenor,  witbout  any  ostensible  cause,  appear  above  the  first  vio- 
lin. Why  has  the  author  permitted  the  tenor  to  appear  above  the  first  violin  at 
59? — Had  that  part  been  written  an  octave  lower,  it  would  have  been  in  its  proper 
situation.  To  prevent  the  consecutive  5ths  in  the  resolution  of  the  chord  of  the 
diminished  7th,  between  the  second  violin  and  tenor  at  56,  and  between  the  first 
violin  and  tenor  at  58  (the  9th  of  the  fundamental  bass  being  in  both  cases  above 
the  5th),  the  author  has  caused  the  tenor  to  fall  to  the  5th  of  the  following  bass, 
instead  of  the  8tli.  Had  the  dissonance  of  the  4th  not  been  introduced,  the  5th 
might  have  ascended  to  the  3rdt. 

It  will  be  i>erceived  that  the  fundamental  basses  have,  in  the  commencement, 
been  figured  with  all  the  dissonances  which  their  progressions  would  admit  of. 
The  pupil  is  advised  to  figure  the  rest  himself,  and  he  will  then  see  how  much 
more  may  be  added  to  the  harmony. 

As  music  may  be  considered  a  language  capable  of  portraying  all  the  passions 
and  feelings  of  which  the  human  mind  is  susceptible,  and  as  a  composition  which 
lays  any  claims  to  excellence  ought  to  possess  the  power  of  awakening  in  us  at 
least  some  of  those  feelings,  we  shall  proceed  to  make  a  few  general  remarks  upon 
the  effect  produced  by  the  composition  just  analyzed,  with  reference  to  that 
object. 

The  introduction,  in  its  effect,  is  noble  and  majestic.  The  first  violin  performs 
a  melody  portraying  kindness  and  affability;  the  steady  and  measured  pace  of  the 
bass  proclaims  dignity  and  self-possession. 

The  second  violin  and  tenor  play,  of  course,  mere  subordinate  parts ;  for  whilst 
the  former  appears  humbly  to  echo  the  sentiments  of  his  superior,  the  latter  is 
making  exertions  to  attract  notice  by  his  little  sections  of  dissonances.  Thus  the 
introduction  continues  to  proceed  with  a  degree  of  seriousness  verging  on  solem- 
nity, until  we  arrive  at  23 ;  here,  however,  the  scene  changes ;  the  allegro,  which 
now  commences,  is  gay  and  playful;  the  second  violins  appear  to  mock  the  first 
violin,  whilst  the  bass,  having  as  it  were  dismissed  all  state  and  formality,  seems  to 
make  amends  for  the  restraint  imposed  upon  himself,  and  gives  way  to  playfulness 
and  good-humour.  This,  when  contrasted  with  its  former  solemnity  and  sobriety 
of  pace,  appears  truly  comic. 

The  effect  of  the  passage  in  the  bass,  as  it  continues  to  ascend,  leads  us  to 
imagine  that,  during  its  progress,  it  increases  in  velocity.  The  tenor,  who  during 
four  bars,  had  been  a  silent  spectator,  joins  the  party  at  31,  and  thus  they  proceed 
together  in  a  manner  calculated  to  portray  a  high  feeling  of  joy  and  ecstasy,  until 
they  arrive  at  the  half  period  at  37.  Here  the  parties  appear  to  be  brought,  for  an 
instant,  to  a  state  of  reflection;  the  adagio  movement,  preceded  by  the  pause,  cer- 
tainly produces  that  effect  upon  the  mind.  This  reflection,  however,  is  not  of  long 
duration;  the  former  scenes  of  merriment  and  joy  are  resumed  at  42,  and  continue, 
without  interruption,  to  53. 

*  See  page  270.  t  See  Ex.  146. 


272 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 


We  shall  now  take,  for  our  subject  of  analyzation,  an  adagio,  selected  from  one 
of  Haydn's  quartets. 

It  is  an  elegant  and  highly-finished  composition;  and,  like  all  the  productions 
of  this  great  master,  contains  abundant  matter  for  the  contemplation  of  the  stu- 
dent. Simplicity  and  variety  are  so  happily  blended,  that  we  scarcely  know  which 
to  admire  most.  In  order  that  the  student  may  be  better  enabled  to  understand 
the  beauties  and  excellencies  of  this  composition,  we  shall,  preparatory  to  our 
entering  upon  the  particulars  of  each  portion,  first  explain  the  general  plan  and 
contrivance  of  the  whole. 

Adagio  sostenuto. 
Haydn. ■'^• 
ist  Violin. 


2nd  Violin 


Alto. 
Basso. 


^^r^f  r,^^  ^^^ — T^t'-t^  t- — ^.- 


3==^^ 


HARMONY  AND   COMPOSITION. 


273 


•  See  example  160 ;  also  197.  198. 


274 


HAKMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 
25. 


2S. 


t      £:      ^ 


-jB;^ 


He       0   '^=F- 


n*       r 


W 


1^^ 


«* 


e=^ 


i 


^  ^  •  ,  f  -  f 


•*-        ■•■-        -m~        -m-  l3^ 


28. 


fe|EiEEi3^E|^^EiEiEM^^*^^E|E 


f 


bT" 


l=g 


^ 


:^ 


^ 


w 


29. 


30. 


31. 


r-^i^=iq 


_— ,^^^_^_^__^^^^>^^ 


^ 


T 


^ 


HARMONY  AISTD   COMPOSITION. 


275 


.    loco. 

32.  33. 


34.  35. 


36. 


37. 


38. 


^.^^uj.s==^m^m-i^^^w^^^^^^- 


2nd  Violin.        tnez.  voce. 


f       P 


— iv-q — h— '^ 


^^^^m 


^^^i3^ 


A//0. 


T^ 


~sir' 


rjf   r 


ttt 


w 


N^^UJJ^ 


-n-i» — =v- 


»? 


IS 


^ 


T 


3E^ 


-ti^ — =r 


*s= 


42. 


43. 


44. 


276 


HARMONY   AND  COMPOSITION. 

47.  48. 


49. 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 
61.  62. 


277 


It  will  be  found  to  comprise  three  subjects:  the  first,  a  graceful  cantabile  move- 
ment, contains  a  period  of  eight  bars,  divided  by  the  half  period  at  4.  This  subject, 
with  a  little  alteration,  is  repeated  from  9,  an  octave  higher,  and  ends  witli  a 
cadence  at  16.  Upon  this  last  bar  commences  a  series  of  sections  by  modulatioio 
on  which  is  constructed,  and  afterwards  continued,  the  second  subject,  commencing 
with  the  bass  at  10.  This  subject  contains  two  bars,  and  is  divided  into  two  por- 
tions; the  second  portion  of  which,  17,  is  given  to  the  first  violin.  By  this  contri- 
vance, a  sort  of  conversation  is  maintained  between  these  two  parts  as  far  as  20. 

Here  these  parts  interchange  subjects,  after  which  the  conversation  ceases 
at  22. 


278  HARMONY   AND   COMPOSITION. 

The  first  violin  now  proceeds  alone,  with  passages  which  are  constructed  in 
such  a  manner  that  we  are  still  enabled  to  recognize,  though  but  faintly,  the  sub 
ject  of  the  bass,  as  well  as  that  of  the  first  violin*. 

At  25,  the  third  subject  commences,  and  after  various  modulations,  closes  with 
a  cadence  in  the  dominant  of  the  original  key  at  33.  Here  the  author,  instead  of 
reiterating  the  first  subject,  most  judiciously  introduces  one  which,  though  bear- 
ing (with  respect  to  its  rhythmical  form)  a  strong  resemblance  to  the  first,  is,  in 
fact,  only  calculated  to  recall  it  to  our  recollection.  By  this  admirable  contrivance, 
all  extraneous  or  new  matter  is  excluded,  and  unity  and  variety  are  preserved;  for, 
as  a  mere  repetition  of  the  original  subject  in  tlie  dominant  would  have  produced 
monotony,  so  an  entirely  new  subject  would  have  had  the  effect  of  injuring  the 
simplicity  of  the  whole.  This  subject  continues  to  40,  where  it  closes  with  a 
cadence. 

Here  the  second  subject  is  resumed  by  the  bass  and  the  first  violin  in  the  dom- 
inant of  the  original  key,  and  ends  at  44,  where  a  series  of  imitations  in  all  the 
parts  commences,  and  is  continued  to  47.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  passage 
here  selected  by  the  composer  for  imitation  does  not  contain  any  new  matter;  it  is, 
in  fact,  only  the  last  half  bar  of  the  second  subject  at  43. 

Thus  the  unity  of  the  whole  is  preserved  without  any  sacrifice  of  variety. 

As  the  passages  of  the  first  and  second  violins,  which  follow  the  imitations 
from  47  to  48,  are  written  upon  the  dominant  harmony  of  the  original  key,  an  ex- 
pectation of  the  approach  of  that  key  is  excited  pi-eparatory  to  its  re-introduc- 
tion, which  takes  place  at  49! ;  at  the  close  of  which  the  first  portion  of  the  second 
subject  is  again  resumed  between  the  first  violin  and  the  bass,  with  this  difference, 
however,  that  the  first  violin  commences  that  subject  instead  of  the  bass,  which 
now  replies  to  it  in  the  dominant. 

At  55,  the  third  subject,  which  continues  for  eleven  bars,  is  again  introduced, 
with  some  alteration  in  its  general  construction;  upon  which  follows  once  more, 
and  for  th«  last  time,  the  first  subject. 

A  series  of  imitations,  founded  on  the  passage  of  the  first  violin  at  22,  com- 
mences between  the  first  violin,  tenor,  and  bass,  and  thus  continues  until  the  whole 
is  concluded.  This  may  be  considered  as  the  general  plan  of  the  composition :  let  us 
now  enter  more  minutely  into  the  examination  of  its  various  parts.  The  key  is  C 
major.  A  false  cadence  occurs  between  2  and  3,  after  which  a  modulation  to  D 
minor  takes  place,  indicated  by  C-sharpJ  in  the  first  violin§.  At  3,  follow  two 
sequences  of  (iths,  after  which  a  modulation  to  the  original  key  is  effected.  At  5, 
the  first  bar  of  the  subject  is  repeated,  but  differently  harmonized;  for  that  which 
at  2  was  only  a  progression  to  A  minor,  is  here  become  a  modulation ||. 

At  7,  a  modulation  to  F  has  taken  place,  after  which  we  proceed,  by  an  irreg- 
ular cadence  IT,  to  the  original  key,  and  thus  close  a  period  of  eight  bars,  the  half 
period  of  which  is  by  progression. 

From  9  to  12,  the  first  half  period  is  repeated,  with  nearly  the  same  harmony 
as  the  preceding.     At  13,  a  modified  bass  on  the  fourth  of  the  scale  is  employed 

•  The  legitimacy  of  the  suspension  of  the  Srd  at  17, 19,  and  21,  in  the  tenor,  whilst  the  3rd  itself 
appears  in  the  first  violin,  is  (luestionable.    This  oversight  (if  we  may  be  allowed  to  use  that  term 
when  applied  to  the  works  of  so  great  a  composer)  is  corrected  at  41  and  43. 
t  See  l)ars  1  to  8.  t  See  Ex.  167. 

§  It  may  hero  appear  that  the  fundamental  7th  in  the  alto  has  ascended  into  the  5th,  instead 
of  resolving  into  tlie  3rd ;  the  autlior,  however,  does  not  in  the  present  instance  consider  this  chord 
as  that  of  the  fundamental  7th.  but  the  first  inversion  of  the  imperfect  common  chord,  see  Ex.  269 
(rf) ;  the  same  occurrence  will  be  found  to  take  place  frequently  in  the  works  of  this  author,  and 
of  others.  II  See  Ex.  170.  IT  See  Ex.  261. 


HARMONT  AND  COMPOSITION".  279 

fundamentalljr*.  Here  a  demonstration  is  made  to  modulate  to  D  minor,  which 
modulation  is,  however,  prevented  by  the  false  cadence  at  14;  a  modulation  to  F  is 
then  introduced,  succeeded  by  the  chord  of  the  compounded  sharp  sixth,  **  the 
resolution  of  which  is  suspended,  t  and  a  final  cadence  once  more  closes  the  for- 
mer  period.  Upon  the  last  bar  (16)  of  this  period  the  second  subject  commences 
with  the  bass,  founded  on  the  following  simple  melody : — 

Violin. 


which  is  made  characteristic  and  interesting  by  the  introduction  of  extended  aux- 
iliary notes  at  16,  and  by  the  simple  passing  and  auxiliary  notes  at  17.  From  16,  a 
modulation  takes  place  to  G,  and  from  thence  to  D  minor;  here  the  author  pro- 
ceeds, for  the  sake  of  variety,  to  the  dominant  of  the  last  key,  by  progression;  the 
same  occurrence  takes  place  from  20  to  21,  where  the  first  violin  and  bass  inter- 
change subjects. 

At  24,  a  modulation  is  effected  to  the  original  key;  the  note  A,  in  the  second 
half  of  that  bar,  is  a  modified  bass  on  the  first  of  the  scale,  and  G-sharp  in  the 
second  violin,  a  passing  notet. 

At  25,  the  third  subject  commences  upon  the  chord  of  the  dominant  7th,  whilst 
in  the  act  of  modulating  to  G.  G-sharp  at  (27),  in  the  first  violin,  is  an  ascending 
dissonance,  viz.,  a  retardation  of  the  5th  by  the  4th§.  At  28,  a  modulation  to  G 
minor  takes  place,  and  at  29,  to  E-flat.  In  the  same  bar  a  modulation  to  G  (the 
dominant  of  the  original  key),  commences  with  the  compounded  sharp  sixth,  P 

the  resolution  of  which  is  suspended  from  30  to  32  i|,  and  closes  at  33  with  a  final 
cadence.  It  may  now  be  said  that  the  composition  is  virtually  finished ;  for  that 
which  follows  (if  we  except  the  first  subject,  altered  as  it  appears  from  33  to  40,) 
is  in  substance  a  repetition,  in  various  forms  and  imitations,  of  that  which  has 
already  been  noticed,  and  with  which  it  is  presumed  the  student  is  now  suffi- 
ciently acquainted.  We  shall,  therefore,  proceed,  in  conclusion,  to  make  a  few 
general  remarks  on  each  of  the  three  principal  subjects,  and  endeavor  to  discover 
the  feelings  which  they  are  calculated  to  excite. 

The  melody,  harmony,  and  modulation  of  the  first  subject  from  1  to  8  is  sooth- 
ing and  placid ;  it  portrays  the  peaceful  and  happy  state  of  a  united  family,  gliding 
along  the  stream  of  life  without  care  or  anxiety.  This  kind  and  affectionate  feel- 
ing is  particularly  observable  in  the  first  eight  bars,  when  contrasted  with  the  eight 
bars  which  immediately  follow ;  for  the  latter,  being  written  an  octave  higher,  ex- 
hibit a  slight  degree  of  excitement,  which  is  increased,  from  13,  by  the  rapid  suc- 
cession of  modulations  ending  with  the  chord  of  the  compounded  sharp  sixth   ?" 

'  IT''. 

This  excitement  seems  to  increase  as  we  proceed  with  the  second  subject  from  16 
to  24,  Here  it  portrays  a  conversation  between  two  persons  at  variance,  whilst 
the  accompaniments  of  the  second  violin  and  tenor  express  anxiety.  From  22,  the 
first  violin  seems  triumphantly  to  proceed  alone,  having,  as  it  were,  subdued  its 
antagonist,  the  bass,  which  now  joins  in  the  accompaniment  of  the  second  violin 
and  tenor.  Here  (at  26)  commences  the  third  subject,  which,  even  from  its  rhyth- 
mical form  alone,  is  calculated  to  portray  agitation,  fear,  distress,  anguish,  palpi- 
tation of  the  heart,  and  as  it  were  a  gasping  for  breath. 

•  See  Ex.  270(/«).  t  See  Ex.  237  (d) 

t  See  Ex.  227.  §  See  Ex.  250.  II  See  Kx.  191. 


2SC  HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION. 

At  2S,  where  the  modulation  to  E-flat  commences,  the  mind  seems  to  be  gra<t- 
ually  wrousrht  up  to  the  extreme  of  asfony  bordering  on  despair;  at  30,  it  appears 
to  be  relieved  from  those  dreadful  feelings,  and  gradually  to  resume  its  original 
and  peaceful  state  in  the  soothing  and  gentle  strain  of  harmony  which  follows 
at  38. 

The  preceding  specimens  of  analyzation  will  suffice  to  show  how  the  student 
may  proceed  on  similar  occasions. 

In  conclusion,  the  author  makes  the  few  following  observations,  which  he 
hopes  will  be  useful  to  him  in  his  future  progress: — 

It  frequently  happens  that  although  the  learner  sets  out  with  the  most  deter- 
mined resolution  to  study  a  work  of  science  with  care  and  attention,  yet  that 
during  his  progress  he  unconciously  accelerates  his  pace,  and  overlooks  many  of 
those  nice  points  of  connection  which  are  indispensable  to  the  proper  understanding 
of  the  whole.  This  imprudent  haste  may  often  be  traced  to  over-anxiety  in  the 
pursuit  of  knowledge;  to  too  much  confidence  in  the  student  in  his  own  quickness 
of  perception,  or  to  natural  impatience.  But  to  whatever  cause  this  error  may  be 
attributed,  the  pupil  cannot  be  too  cautious  in  avoiding  it.  If  he  has  been  really 
desirous  of  acquiring  a  perfect  knowledge  of  the  work  before  him,  he  has  no  doubt 
exercised  upon  the  rules  as  they  progressively  presented  themselves  to  him;  and  if 
he  has  done  so,  he  must  have  obsei'ved, — 

First:  That  from  the  commencement  to  the  end  they  are  so  closely  inter- 
woven, and  constitute  collectively  such  a  chain  of  causes  and  effects,  that  they 
could  not  be  studied  in  a  desultory  or  disjointed  manner. 

Secondly:  He  must  have  perceived,  as  he  proceeded  thus  step  by  step,  new 
and  interesting  matter  continually  'presenting  itself  to  his  attention,  expanding 
his  views,  and  encouraging  him  to  proceed. 

Thirdly:  That  he  himself  has  made  discoveries,  without  even  travelling  out  of 
his  way  in  search  of  them. 

Should  the  learner  have  thus  proceeded  in  his  studies,  and  "'made  haste  slowly ,^^ 
he  is  advised  by  all  means  to  make  an  attempt  at  composition.  All  knowledge  is 
in  progression,  and  it  is  only  by  degrees  that  excellence  can  be  obtained.  To 
acijuire  facility  in  comjjosition  much  practice  is  absolutely  necessary. 

Should  it  be  said  that  genius  and  talents  are  requisite  to  make  a  composer,  we 
answer  certainly:  to  make  a  great  composer  these  gifts  are  indispensable;  but  they 
are  equally  so  to  make  a  great  poet,  painter,  or  architect.  &c.  But  shall  none 
compose,  write  poetry,  paint,  &c.,  but  those  who  are  thus  gifted?  No  one  will 
pretend  to  say  that  those  numerous  composers  who  have  lived  from  the  earliest 
time  to  the  present  day,  have  all  been,  or  are,  in  possession  of  those  peculiar  gifts! 
Shall  we  not  build  houses  because  we  have  not  the  genius  and  means  to  construct 
palaces?  Is  it  then  absolutely  necessary,  in  order  to  compose,  that  we  possess  the 
genius  and  imagination  of  a  Gluck,  a  Handel,  a  Mozart,  or  a  Beethoven?  Shall 
none  dare  to  write  but  those  who  can  produce  a  grand  sinfonia,  serious  opera,  or 
oratorio?  May  not  pleasure  as  well  as  profit  be  derived  from  the  composition  of 
songs,  glees,  sonatas,  rondos,  airs  with  variations,  A-c.?  Let  us  hut  make  a  beginning. 
This,  however,  it  must  be  confessed,  has  hitherto  been  the  great  stumbling-block. 
How  shall  I  begin?  How  shall  I  set  about  it?  These,  it  cannot  be  denied,  are 
very  natural  and  reasonable  questions.  If  the  pupil,  however,  has  carefully 
studied  tlie  construction  of  periods  and  melodies,  the  necessity  of  asking  such 
questions  no  longer  exists;  for  what  beginning  can  be  more  simple,  or  what  path 

*  A  German  author  says:  ''  Eine  Tlieorie  der  Kunst  ist  Schiinheit  oline  Gefuhle  und  Phan- 
tasie.'     The  theory  of  an  art  is  beauty  without  feeling  and  imagination.    Ifow  true' 


HARMONY  AND  COMPOSITION.  281 

more  secure  than  that  which  is  pointed  out  to  him  from  Ex.  322.  For  instance: 
he  draws  an  outline  of  his  intended  composition,  fills  it  up  with  fundamental 
basses,  extracts  inverted  basses,  and  constructs  a  counter  melody;  to  which  he 
adds  the  rest  of  the  parts,  dissonances,  passing  and  auxiliary  notes,  &c.  All  this 
is  accomplished  without  difficulty,  because  the  rules  are  all  determined,  and 
nothing  is  left  to  chance.  During  this  process,  no  peculiar  musical  genius  or  feel- 
ing, no  imagination  or  nicely-discriminating  musical  ear  is  required*;  moderate 
talents,  accompanied  with  a  little  patience  and  reflection,  are  sufficient  to  produce 
that  which  will  lead  and  encourage  him  to  higher  exertionst. 

The  student  will  find,  as  he  proceeds,  new  matter  perpetually  springing  up,  as 
it  were,  spontaneously  under  his  hands ;  subjects,  which  at  the  commencement 
appear  as  mere  trifles,  may,  subsequently,  by  a  little  contrivance  (but  still  accord- 
ing to  rule)  be  made  most  interesting. 

By  way  of  illustration  of  the  above,  and  encouragement  to  the  student  to 
make  the  attempt  at  composition,  we  shall  first  trace  the  gradual  progress  and 
subsequent  changes  of  a  simple  melody  and  harmony  as  it  emanates  from  the  out- 
line, or  sketch;  and  then  show  by  what  a  simple  and  easy  process  the  original 
materials  are  afterwards  capable  of  being  converted  into  new  matter,  almost  end- 
less in  variety  and  effect. 

Let  us  suppose,  for  instance,  that  a  melody  has  been  constructed  and  har- 
monized according  to  the  rules  commencing  from  Ex.  322.  The  inner  parts  of 
the  harmony  may,  perhaps,  only  with  a  slight  alteration,  furnish  melodies  which 
may  be  'reharmonized  in  a  variety  of  ways,  by  merely  changing  each  time  the 
original  fundamental  bass  and  inversions. 

Secondly:  By  reharmonizing  the  original  melody  and  adding  a  few  modified 
basses,  the  inner  parts  of  which  will  again  furnish  new  melodies. 

Thirdly:  By  harmonizing  the  original  melody  according  to  the  rules  commenc- 
ing from  Ex.  167. 

Fourthly:  By  adding  modified  basses  to  the  air  thus  harmonized.  Let  it  be 
recollected  that  at  each  change  of  harmony  a  corresponding  change  of  dissonances 
and  passing  notes  also  takes  place. 

Hitherto  we  have  only  considered  what  may  be  effected  by  a  mere  change  of 
harmony;  but  what  shall  we  say  when, 

Fifthly:  We  likewise  alter. the  measure  of  time  and  rhythm  of  the  original  sub- 
ject, or  any  of  those  subjects  which  have  arisen  from  it?  Indeed,  the  change,  on 
these  occasions,  is  frequently  so  great,  that  the  original  source  from  which  these 
harmonies  have  emanated  is  no  longer  to  be  recognized. 

Sixthly:  By  letting  the  alto  and  tenor  interchange  places. 

Seventhly  and  lastly:  Extension  of  periods,  and  imitation  between  the  parts. 

Now  that  all  these  endless  varieties  of  effects  do  arise  from  a  sim])le  outline, 
such  as  has  just  been  described,  cannot  be  denied.  Then  where  is  the  difficulty 
which  shall  deter  the  student  from  making  an  attempt  at  composition?  The  pro- 
cess here  pointed  out  is  so  simple  and,  it  may  be  added,  interesting,  that  it  only 
requires  in  us  the  will,  and  the  object  is  accomi)lished.  The  author  re))eats  once 
more,  that  if  the  student  but  makes  the  attempt,  and  follows  the  rules  contained 
in  this  work  with  patience  and  perseverance,  he  will  not  only  have  no  cause  to  be 
dissatisfied  with  his  progress,  but  will  discover  a  source  of  amusement  and 
improvement,  of  which  he  can  form  no  adequate  idea  without  the  trial. 

t  In  proof  of  this,  it  is  only  necessary  to  examine  the  gradual  progression  of  the  outline  of  the 
melody  from  Ex.  322  to  332. 

FINIS. 


THE 


Orchestral  Conductor 


THEORY    OF    HIS    ART 


BY 

HECTOR    BERLIOZ. 


NEW    YORK 
PUBLISHED    By    CARL   FISCHER 

6-IO  Fourth  Ave.,  Cooper  Square. 

Copyright,  1902,   By  Carl  Fischer. 


THE   ORCHESTRAL   CONDUCTOR. 

THEORY   OF    HIS   ART. 


By    HECTOE    BEELIOZ. 


Music  appears  to  be  the  most  exacting  of  all  the  Arts,  the  cultivation  of  which 
presents  the  greatest  difficulties,  for  a  consummate  interpretation  of  a  musical  work 
so  as  to  permit  an  appreciation  of  its  real  value,  a  clear  view  of  its  physiognomy,  or 
discernment  of  its  real  meaning  and  true  character,  is  only  achieved  in  relatively 
few  cases.  Of  creative  artists,  the  composer  is  almost  the  only  one  who  is  dependent 
upon  a  multitude  of  intermediate  ageuts  between  the  public  and  himself  ;  intermedi- 
ate agents,  either  intelligent  or  stupid,  devoted  or  hostile,  active  or  inert,  capable  — 
from  first  to  last  — of  contributing  to  the  brilliancy  of  his  work,  or  of  disfiguring  it, 
misrepresenting  it,  and  even  destroying  it  completely. 

Singers  have  often  been  accused  of  forming  the  most  dangerous  of  these  inter- 
mediate agents  ;  but  in  my  opinion,  without  justice.  The  most  formidable,  to  my 
thinking,  is  the  conductor  of  the  orchestra.  A  bad  singer  can  spoil  only  his  own 
part ;  while  an  incapable  or  malevolent  conductor  ruins  all.  Happy  indeed  may  the 
composer  esteem  himself  when  the  conductor  into  whose  hands  he  has  fallen  is  not 
at  once  incapable  and  inimical;  for  nothing  can  resist  the  pernicious  influence  of 
this  person.  The  most  admirable  orchestra  is  then  paralyzed,  the  most  excellent 
singers  are  perplexed  and  rendered  dull  ;  there  is  no  longer  any  vigor  or  unity  ;  under 
such  direction  the  noblest  daring  of  the  author  appears  extravagant,  enthusiasm 
beholds  its  soarnig  flight  checked,  inspiration  is  violently  brought  down  to  earth,  the 
angel's  wings  are  broken,  the  man  of  genius  passes  for  a  madman  or  an  idiot,  the 
divine  statue  is  precipitated  from  its  pedestal,  and  dragged  in  the  mud.  And  what 
is  worse,  the  public,  and  even  auditors  endowed  with  the  highest  musical  intelligence, 
are  reduced  to  the  impossibility  (if  a  new  work  is  rendered,  and  they  are  hearing 
it  for  the  first  time)  of  recognizing  the  ravages  perpetrated  by  the  orchestral  con- 
ductor—  of  discovering  the  follies,  faults,  and  crimes  he  commits.  If  thej'  clearly 
perceive  certain  defects  of  execution,  not  he,  but  his  victims,  are  in  such  cases  made 
re.sponsible.  If  he  has  caused  the  chorus-singers  to  fail  in  taking  up  a  point  in  a 
finale,  if  he  has  allowed  a  discordant  wavering  to  take  place  between  the  choir  and 
the  orchestra,  or  between  the  extreme  sides  of  the  instrumental  body,  if  he  has 
absurdly  hurried  a  movement,  or  allowed  it  to  linger  unduly,  if  he  has  interruiJted 
a  singer  before  the  end  of  a  phrase,  they  exclaim  :  "  The  singers  are  detestable  !  The 
orchestra  has  no  firnmess  ;  the  violins  have  di.sfigured  the  principal  design  ;  every- 
body has  been  wanting  in  vigor  and  animation  ;  the  tenor  was  quite  out,  he  did  not 
know  his  part  ;  the  harmony  is  confused  ;  tiie  author  is  no  accompanist  ;  the  voices 
are "  etc. 

Except  in  listening  to  great  works  a]read\'  known  and  esteemed,  intelligent 
hearers  can  hardly  distinguish  the  true  culprit,  and  allot  to  him  his  due  share  of 
blame;  but  the  number  of  these  is  still  .so  limited  that  their  judgment  has  little 
weight ;  and  the  ho.stile  conductor  —  in  presence  of  the  public  who  would  pitiles.sly 
hiss  a  vocal  accident  of  a  good  singer  —  reigns,  with  all  the  calm  of  a  bad  con.science, 


2  THE    ORCHESTRAL    CONDUCTOR. 

in  his  baseness  and  inefficiency.  Fortunately,  I  here  attack  an  exception  ;  for  the 
malevolent  orchestral  conductor  —  whether  capable  or  not  —  is  very  rare. 

The  orchestral  conductor  full  of  goodwill,  but  incapable,  is  on  the  contrary  very 
common.  Without  speaking  of  innumerable  mediocrities,  directing  artists  who  fre- 
quently are  much  their  superiors,  an  author  for  example,  can  scarcely  be  accused  of 
conspiring  against  his  own  works.  Yet  how  many  are  there  who,  fancying  they  are 
able  to  conduct,  iiuiocently  injure  their  best  scores  ! 

Beethoven,  it  is  said,  more  than  once  ruined  the  performance  of  his  symphonies ; 
which  he  would  conduct,  even  at  the  time  when  his  deafness  had  become  almost 
complete.  The  musicians,  in  order  to  keep  together,  agreed  at  length  to  follow  the 
.slight  indications  of  time  which  the  concertmeister  (lirst  violin-player)  gave  them  ; 
and  not  to  attend  to  Beethoven's  conducting-stick.  Moreover,  it  should  be  observed, 
that  conducting  a  symphony,  an  overture,  or  any  other  composition  whose  movements 
remain  continual,  vary  little,  and  contain  few  nice  gi-adations,  is  child's  play  in  com- 
parison with  conducting  an  opera,  or  like  work,  where  there  are  recitatives,  airs,  and 
numerous  orche.stral  designs  preceded  by  jiauses  of  irregular  length. 

The  example  of  Beethoven,  which  I  have  just  cited,  leads  me  at  once  to  say  that 
if  the  direction  of  an  orchestra  appears  to  be  very  difficult  for  a  blind  man,  it  is 
indisputably  impossible  for 'a  deaf  one,  whatever  may  have  been  his  technical  talent 
before  losing  his  sen.se  of  hearing. 

The  orchestral  conductor  should  see  and  hear ;  he  .should  be  active  and  vk/orous, 
should  know  the  composition  and  the  nature  and  compass  of  the  instruments,  should 
be  able  to  read  the  score,  and  possess  —  besides  the  especial  talent  of  which  we  shall 
presently  endeavor  to  explain  the  constituent  qualities — other  indefinable  gifts,  with- 
out which  an  invisible  link  cannot  e.stablish  itself  between  him  and  those  he  directs  ; 
otherwise  the  faculty  of  transmitting  to  them  his  feeling  is  denied  him,  and  power, 
empire,  and  guiding  influence  completely  fail  him.  He  is  then  no  longer  a  conductor, 
a  director,  but  a  simple  beater  of  the  time,  —  supposing  he  knows  how  to  beat  it,  and 
divide  it,  regularly. 

The  performers  should  feel  that  he  feels,  comprehends,  and  is  moved  :  then  his 
emotion  communicates  itself  to  tho.se  whom  he  directs,  his  inward  fire  warms  them, 
his  electric  glow  animates  them,  his  force  of  impulse  excites  them  ;  he  throws  aroimd 
him  the  vital  irradiations  of  musical  art.  If  he  is  inert  and  frozen,  on  the  contrary, 
he  paralyzes  all  about  him,  like  those  floating  masses  of  the  polar  seas,  the  approach 
of  which  is  perceived  through  the  sudden  cooling  of  the  atmosphere. 

His  task  is  a  complicated  one.  He  has  not  only  to  conduct,  in  the  spirit  of  the 
author's  intentions,  a  work  with  which  the  performers  have  already  become  ac- 
quainted, but  he  must  ahso  introduce  new  compositions  and  help  the  performers  to 
master  them.  He  has  to  criticise  the  errors  and  defects  of  each  during  the  rehear- 
sals, and  to  organize  the  resources  at  his  disposal  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  the  best 
use  he  can  of  them  with  the  utmost  promptitude ;  for,  in  the  majority  of  European 
cities  nowadays,  musical  artisanship  is  so  ill  distributed,  performers  so  ill  paid  and 
the  necessity  of  study  so  little  understood,  that  economy  of  time  should  be  reckoned 
among  the  most  imperative  requisites  of  the  orchestral  conductor's  art. 

Let  us  now  see  what  constitutes  the  mechanical  part  of  this  art. 

The  power  of  beating  the  time,  without  demanding  very  high  musical  attain- 
ments, is  nevertheless  sufficiently  difficult  to  secure  ;  and  very  few  persons  really  pos- 
sess it.  The  signs  that  the  conductor  .should  make — although  generally  very  simple 
—  nevertheless  become  complicated  under  certain  circumstances,  by  the  division  and 
even  the  subdivision  of  the  time  of  the  bar. 


THE  OUT   OF  HIS   ART.  6 

The  conductor  is,  above  all,  bound  to  possess  a  clear  idea  of  the  principal  points 
and  character  of  the  work  of  which  he  is  about  to  superintend  the  performance  or 
study  ;  in  order  that  he  may,  without  hesitation  or  mistake,  at  once  determine  the 
time  of  each  movement  desired  by  the  composer.  If  he  has  not  had  the  opportunity 
of  receiving  his  instructions  directly  from  the  composer,  or  if  the  times  have  not  been 
transmitted  to  him  by  tradition,  he  must  have  recourse  to  the  indications  of  the 
metronome,  and  study  them  well ;  the  majority  of  composers,  nowadays,  taking  the 
precaution  to  write  them  at  the  beginning,  and  in  the  course,  of  their  pieces.  I  do  not 
mean  to  say  by  this  that  it  is  necessary  to  imitate  the  mathematical  regularity  of  the 
metronome  ,  all  music  so  performed  would  become  of  freezing  stiffness,  and  I  even 
doubt  whether  it  would  be  possible  to  observe  so  flat  a  uniformity  during  a  certain 
number  of  bars.  But  the  metronome  is  none  the  less  excellent  to  consult  in  order  to 
know  the  original  time,  and  its  chief  alterations. 

If  the  conductor  possess  neither  the  author's  instructions,  tradition,  nor  metro- 
nome indications,  —  which  frequently  happens  in  the  ancient  masterpieces,  written  at 
a  period  when  the  metronome  was  not  invented,  —  he  has  no  other  guide  than  the 
vague  terms  employed  to  designate  the  time  to  be  taken,  and  his  own  instinct,  his 
feeling  —  more  or  less  distinguishing,  more  or  less  just  —  of  the  author's  style.  "We 
are  compelled  to  admit  that  these  guides  are  too  often  insufficient  and  delusive.  Of 
this  we  have  proof  in  seeing  how  old  operas  are  given  in  towns  where  the  traditional 
mode  of  performance  no  longer  exists.  In  ten  different  kinds  of  time,  there  will 
always  be  at  least  four  taken  wrongly.  I  once  heard  a  chorus  of  IiMgenia  in  Tau- 
ride  performed  in  a  German  theatre  allegro  assai,  two  in  the  bar,  instead  of  allegro  non 
troppo,  four  in  the  bar;  that  is  to  say,  exactly  twice  too  fast.  Examples  might  be 
multiplied  of  such  disasters,  occasioned  either  by  the  ignorance  or  the  carelessness 
of  conductors  of  orchestras  ;  or  else  by  the  real  difficulty  which  exists  for  even  the 
best-gifted  and  most  careful  men  to  discover  the  precise  meaning  of  the  Italian  terms 
used  as  indications  of  the  time  to  be  taken.  Of  course,  no  one  can  be  at  a  loss  to 
distinguish  a  Largo  from  a  Presto.  If  the  Presto  be  two  in  a  bar,  a  tolerably  saga- 
cious conductor,  from  inspection  of  the  passages  and  melodic  designs  contained  in  the 
piece,  will  be  able  to  discern  the  degree  of  quickness  intended  by  the  author.  But  if 
the  Largo  be  four  in  a  bar,  of  simple  melodic  structure,  and  containing  but  few  notes 
in  each  bar,  what  means  has  the  hapless  conductor  of  discovering  the  true  time  ? 
And  in  how  many  ways  might  he  not  be  deceived  ?  The  different  degrees  of  slowness 
that  might  be  assigned  to  the  performance  of  such  a  Largo  are  very  numerous  ;  the 
individual  feeling  of  the  orchestral  conductor  must  then  become  the  sole  authority  ; 
and.  after  all,  it  is  the  author's  feeling,  not  his,  which  is  in  question.  Composers 
therefore  ought  not  to  neglect  placing  metronome  indications  in  their  works  ;  and 
orchestral  conductors  are  bound  to  study  them  closely.  The  neglect  of  this  study  on 
the  part  of  the  latter,  is  an  act  of  dishonesty. 

I  will  now  suppose  the  conductor  to  be  perfectly  well  acquainted  with  the  times 
of  the  different  movements  in  the  work  of  which  he  is  about  to  conduct  the  perform- 
ance or  rehearsals  ;  he  wishes  to  impart  to  the  musicians  acting  under  his  orders  the 
rhythmical  feeling  within  him,  to  decide  the  duration  of  each  bar,  and  to  cause  the 
miiform  observance  of  this  duration  by  all  the  performers.  Now  this  precision  and 
this  uniformity  can  only  be  established  in  the  more  or  less  numerous  assemblage  of 
band  and  chorus  by  means  of  certain  signs  made  by  their  conductor. 

These  signs  indicate  the  principle  divisions,  the  accents  of  the  bar,  and,  in  many 
cases,  the  subdivisions,  and  the  half-accents.  I  need  hardly  here  explain  what  is 
meant  by  the  "accents "  (accented  and  unaccented  parts  of  a  bar) ;  I  am  presupposing 
that  I  address  musicians. 


THE    OUClIESrilAL    CONDUCTOR. 


The  orchestral  comluctor  generally  uses  a  small  light  stick,  of  about  a  foot  in 
length,  and  rather  whitish  than  of  a  dark  color  (it  is  seen  better),  which  he  holds  in 
his  right  hand,  to  make  clearly  distinct  his  mode  of  marking  the  commencement,  the 
interior  division,  and  the  close  of  each  bar.  The  bow,  employed  by  some  violinist- 
conductors  (leaders),  is  less  suitable  than  the  stick.  It  is  somewhat  flexible,  and  this 
want  of  rigidity,  together  with  the  slight  resistance  it  offers  to  the  air,  oil  account  of 
its  appendage  of  hair,  renders  its  indications  less  precise. 

The  simplest  of  all  times  —  two  in  a  bar  —  is  beaten  simply. 

The  arm  and  the  stick  of  the  conductor  are  raised,  so  that  his  hand  is  on  a  level 


2 


with  his  heatl,  he  marks  the  first  beat,  by  dropping  the  point  of  his  stick 
X)erpendicularly  {bending  his  wrist  as  much  as  possible;  and  not  lowering 
the  whole  arm),  and  the  second  beat  by  raising  the  stick  by  a  contrary 
gestm-e. 

The  time  —  one  in  a  bar — being  in  reality,  and  jjarticularly  for  the 
conductor,  but  the  time  of  an  extremely  rapid  two  in  a  bar,  should  be  beaten 
*  like  the  preceding.     As  the  conductor  is  obliged  to  raise  the  point  of  his 

stick,  after  having  lowered  it,  he  necessarily  divides  this  into  two  portions. 

In  the  time  —  four  in  a  bar  —  the  first  gesture,  or  down  beat,  is  universally 
adopted  for  marking  the  first  accented  part,  the  commencement  of  the  bar. 

The  second  movement  made  by  the  conducting-stick,   from  right  to  left,     ^ 
rising,    ..^^  indicates  the  second  beat  (first  unaccented  part).     A  third, 

trans        ^^"""^^^    versely,  from  left  to  right,  indicates   the   third 

beat  (second  accented  part)  ;  and  ^P'      ^      a  fourth,  obliquely,   from 

down  to  up,  indicates  the  fourth  beat  (second  unaccented     part).        The 

combination  of  these  four  gestures  may  be  figured  thus  :  — 

It  is  of  importance  that  the  conductor,  in  thus  deliv- 
ering his  different  directions,  should  not  move  his  arm 
much  ;  and  consequently,  not  allow  his  stick  to  pass 
over  much  space  ;  for  each  of  these  gestures  should 
operate  nearly  instantaneously  ;  or  at  least,  take  but  so 
slight  a  movement  as  to  be  imperceptible.  If  the  move- 
ment becomes  perceptible,  on  the  contrary,  and  multi- 
plied by  the  number  of  times  that  the  gesture  is  repeated, 
it  ends  by  throwing  the  conductor  behind  in  the  time 
he  is  beating,  and  by  giving  to  his  conducting  a  tardiness 
tjiat  proves  injurious.  This  defect,  moreover,  has  the  result  of  needlessly  fatiguing 
the  conductor,  and  of  producing  exaggerated  evolutions,  verging  on  the  ridiculous, 
which  attract  the  spectators'  attention,  and  become  very  disagreeable  to  witness. 

In  the  time,  three  in  a  bar,  the  first  gesture  made,  from  up  to 
down,  is  likewise  universally  adopted  for  marking  the  first  beat  ;  but 
there  are  two  ways  of  marking  the  second.  The  majority  of  orches- 
tral conductors  indicate  it  by  a  gesture  from  left  to  right  ;  thus  :  — 

Some  German  Kapel-meisters  do  the  contrary  ;  and  carry  the 
stick  from  right  to  left  ;  thus  :  — 

TThis  way  has  the  disadvantage  —  when  the  conductor  turns 
his  back  to  the  orchestra,  as  in  theatres  —  of  permitting  only  a  small 
number  of  musicians  to  perceive  the  very  important  indication  of  the 
I  second  beat ;  the  body  of  the  conductor  then  hiding  the  movement 
I  of  his  arm.  The  other  method  of  proceeding  is  preferable  ;  since 
1      the  conductor  stretches  his  ann  outwards,  withdrawing  it  from  bis 


^ 


K3 


yC 


THEORY   OF  HIS  ART. 


r, 


chest  ;  and  his  stick,  wiiicli  lie  takes  care  to  raise  slightly  above  the  level  of  his 
shoulder,  remains  perfectly  visible  to  all  eyes.  When  the  conductor  faces  the 
players,  it  is  immaterial  whether  he  marks  the  second  beat  to  the  right,  or  to  the  left. 

However,  the  third  beat  of  the  time,  three  in  a  bar,  is  always  marked  like  the 
last  of  the  time,  four  in  a  bar  ;  by  an  oblique  movement  upwards. 

The  times, — five  and  seven  iu  a 
bar,  —  would  be  more  comprehensible 
for  the  performers,  if  instead  of  indi- 
cating them  by  a  particular  series  of 
gestures,  they  were  treated  as  though 
the  one  was  composed  of  three  and  two 
in  a  bar,  and  the  other  composed  of 
four  and  three. 

Then,  these  times  would  be 
beaten  thus :  — 


or 


r 
1 


Example  of  seven  in  a  bar  :  — 


These  different  times,  in  order  to  be  divided  in  this  way,  are  assumed  to  belong  to 
movements  of  moderate  meastire.  The  advice  would  not  hold  good  if  their  measure 
were  either  very  qtiick  or  very  slow. 

The  time,  two  in  a  bar,  I  have  already  signified,  cannot  be  beaten  otherwise  than 
as  we  have  before  seen — whatever  its  degree  of  rapidity.  But  if,  as  an  exception,  it 
should  be  very  slow,  the  conductor  ought  to  stibdivide  it. 

A  very  rapid  four  in  a  bar,  on  the  contrary,  should  be  beaten  two  in  a  bar  ;  the 
four  accustomed  gestures  of  a  moderate  movement  becoming  then  so  hurried  as  to 
present  nothing  decided  to  the  eye,  and  serving  only  to  confuse  the  performer  instead 
of  giving  him  confidence.  Moreover,  —  and  this  is  of  much  more  consequence,  —  the 
condtictor,  by  uselessly  making  these  four  gestures  iu  a  quick  movement,  renders 
the  pace  of  the  rhythm  awkward,  and  loses  the  freedom  of  gesture  whicli  a  simple 
division  of  the  time  into  its  half  would  leave  him. 

Generally  .speaking,  composers  are  wrong  to  write  in  such  a  case  the  indication 
of  the  time  as  four  in  a  bar.  When  the  movement  is  very  brisk,  they  should  never 
write  any  other  than  the  sign  ^,  and  not  that  of  g,  which  might  lead  the  conductor 
into  error. 

-  It  is  exactly  the  same  for  the  time,  three  in  a  bar,  fast  J  or  |.     Then 

the  conductor  must  onut  the  gesture  of  the  second  beat,  and,  by  remaining 
the  period  of  a  beat  longer  on  the  first,  only  raise  the  stick  at  the  third. 

It  would  be  absurd  to  attempt  to  beat  the  three  in  a  bar  of  one  of 
Beethoven's  scherzos. 

In  slow  movements  the  rule  for  these  two  times  is  like  that  for  two 
in  a  bar.     If  the  movement  is  very  .slow,  each  time  must  be  divided  ; 


T 

1&2 


THE    ORCHESTRAL    CONDUCTOR. 


aud  consequently  eight  gestures  must  be  made  for  the  time,  four  in  a  bar,  and  six 
for  the  time,  three  in  a  bar,  repeating  (and  siiorteniug)  each  of  the  principal  gestures 


we  have   before  instanced. 

Example  of  four  in  a  bar, 
very  slow  : 


Example  of  three  in  a  bar, 
very  slow  : 


The  arm  should  take 
no  part  in  the  little  sup- 
plementary gesture  indi- 
cating the  subdivision  of 
the  bar  ;  merely  the  wrist 
causing  the  stick  to  move. 
This  division  of  the 
different  times  is  intended 
to  prevent  the  rhythmical 
divergences   which    might 

easily  take  place  among  the  performers  during 
the  interval  which  separates  one  beat  from  the 
other.  The  conductor  not  indicating  anything  during  this  period  (rendered  some- 
what considerable  by  the  extreme  slowness  of  the  movement),  the  players  are 
then  entirely  left  to  themselves,  without  conductor;  and  as  the  rhythmical  feeling  is 
not  the  same  with  all,  it  follows  that  some  hurry,  while  others  slacken,  and 
miity  is  soon  destroyed.  The  only  exception  possible  to  this  rule  is  that  of  a 
first-rate  orchestra,  composed  of  performers  who  are  well  acquainted  with  each 
other,  are  accustomed  to  play  together,  and  know  almost  by  heart  the  work  they  are 
executing.  Even  then,  the  inattention  of  a  single  player  may  occasion  an  accident. 
Why  incur  its  possibility  ?  I  know  that  certain  artists  feel  their  self-love  hurt  when 
thus  kept  in  leading-strings  (like  children,  they  say)  ;  but  with  a  conductor  who  has 
no  other  view  than  the  excellence  of  the  ultimate  result,  this  consideration  can  have 
no  weight.  Even  in  a  quartet,  it  is  seldom  that  the  individual  feeling  of  the  players 
can  be  left  entirely  free  to  follow  its  own  dictates.  In  a  symphony,  that  of  the  con- 
ductor must  rule.  The  art  of  comprehending  it,  and  fulfilling  it  with  unanimity, 
constitutes  the  jjerfection  of  execution  ;  and  individual  wills  —  which  can  never  agree 
one  with  another  —  should  never  be  permitted  to  manifest  themselves. 

This  being  fully  understood,  it  will  be  seen  that  subdivision  is  still  more  essential 
for  very  slow  times  ;  as  those  of  f ,  f ,  f ,  J/_  etc. 

But  these  times  —  where  the  triple  rhythm  plays  so  important  a  part  —  may  be 
divided  in  various  ways. 

If  tlie  movement  is  brisk  or  moderate,  it  is  rarely  well  to  indicate  other  than  the 
simple  beats  of  these  times,  according  to  the  procedure  adopted  for  the  analogous 
simple  times. 

The  times  of  |  allegretto,  and  of  |  allegro,  therefore,  are  to  be  beaten  like  tliose 
of  two  in  a  bar  :  — ^  =  or  2  =  or  f  ;  the  time,  |  allegro,  should  be  beaten  like  that  of 
three  in  a  bar  —  \  moderato,  or  like  that  of  f  andantino  ;  and  the  time,  1/  moderato 
or  allegro,  like  the  time,  simple  four  in  a  bar.  But  if  the  movement  be  adagio,  largo 
assai,  or  andante  maestoso,  either  all  the  quavers,  or  a  crotchet  followed  by  a  quaver, 
should  be  beaten,  according  to  the  form  of  the  melody,  or  the  predominant  design. 
Larghefto  Grazioso.  ^*— ^ ^ 


^E 


^S 


^ 


It  is  unnecessary,  in  this  three  in  a  bar,  to  mark  all  the  quavers  ;  the  rhythm  of  a 
crotchet  followed  by  a  quaver  in  each  beat  suffices. 


THEORY   OF  HIS  ART. 


As  to  the  subdivision,  the  little  supplementary  gesture  for  simple  times  should  be 
made  ;  this  subdivision  wUl  however  separate  each  beat  into  two  unequal  portions, 
since  it  is  requisite  to  indicate  visibly  the  value  of  the  crotchet,  and  that  of  the 
quaver. 

If  the  movement  is  still  slower,  there  can  be  no  hesitation ;  the  only  way  to 
ensure  unity  of  execution  is  to  beat  all  the  quavers,  whatever  be  the  nature  of  the 


written  bar. 


Adagio. 


Taking  the  three  measures  shown  above  in  order,  the  conductor  must 
quavers  down,  and  three  up,  for  the  time  of  f  :  — 

Three  down,  three  to  the  right,  and  three  up,  for  the  time    ^ 
off:- 

Three  down,  three  to  the  left,  three 
to  the  right,  and  three  up,  for  the  time 
of  -y  :  — 


-C^ 


beat  three 


p(\ 


.1 


N 


> 


m 


TTY 


< 


% 


Y 


A  dilemma  sometimes  presents  itself  when  certain  parts — for  the  sake  of  contrast 
■  are  given  a  triple  rhythm,  while  others  preserve  the  dual  rhythm. 

Andante..^.  - '    :t         i^: 


Wind 
Instruments. 


Violin. 


If  the  wind-instrument  parts  in  the  above  example  are  confided  to  players  who  are 
good  musicians,  there  will  be  no  need  to  change  the  manner  of  marking  the  bar,  and 
the  conductor  may  continue  to  subdivide  it  by  six,  or  to  divide  it  simply  by  two.  The 
majority  of  players,  however,  seeming  to  hesitate  at  the  moment  when,  by  employing 
the  syncopated  form,  the  triple  rhythm  clashes  with  the  dual  rhythm,  require  assur- 


8 


THE    ORCHESTRAL    CONDUCTOR. 


ance,  which  can  be  given  by  easj'  means.  The  uncertainty  occasioned  them  by  the 
sudden  appearance  of  the  unexcepted  rhythm,  contradicted  by  the  rest  of  the  orches- 
tra, always  leads  the  performers  to  cast  an  instinctive  glance  towards  the  conductor, 
as  if  seeking  his  assistance.  He  should  look  at  them,  turning  somewhat  towards  them, 
and  marking  the  triple  rhythm  by  very  .slight  gestures,  as  if  the  time  were  really  three 
in  a  bar,  but  in  such  a  way  that  the  violins  and  other  instruments  playing  in 
dual  rhythm  may  not  observe  the  change,  which  would  quite  put  them  out.  From 
this  compromise  it  results  that  the  new  rhythm  of  three-time,  being  marked  furtively 
by  the  conductor,  is  executed  with  steadiness  ;  while  the  two-time  rhythm,  already 
firmly  established,  continues  without  difficulty,  although  no  longer  indicated  by  the 
conductor.  On  the  other  hand,  nothing,  in  my  opinion  can  be  more  blamable,  or 
more  contrary  to  musical  good  seu.se,  than  the  application  of  this  procedure  to  pas- 
sages where  two  rhythms  of  opposite  nature  do  not  co-exist,  and  where  merely  syncopa- 
tions are  introduced.  The  conductor,  dividing  the  bar  by  the  number  of  accents  he 
finds  contained  in  it,  then  destroys  (for  all  the  auditors  who  see  him)  the  effect  of  syn- 
copation ;  and  substitutes  a  mere  change  of  time  for  a  play  of  rhythm  of  the  most 
bewitching  interest.  If  the  accents  are  marked,  instead  of  the  beats,  in  the  following 
passage  from  Beethoven's  Pastoral  Symphony,  we  have  the  siibjoined  :  — 


Andante. 


whereas  the  four  previously  maintained  di.splay  the  syncopation  and  make  it  better 
felt  :  — 


This  voluntary  submission  to  a  rhythmical  form  which  the  author  intended  to 
thwart  is  one  of  the  gravest  faults  in  style  that  a  beater  of  the  time  can  commit. 

There  is  another  dilemma,  extremely  troublesome  for  a  conductor,  and  demand- 
ing all  his  presence  of  mind.  It  is  that  presented  by  the  super-addition  of  different 
bars.  It  is  easy  to  conduct  a  bar  in  dual  time  placed  above  or  beneath  another  bar  in 
triple  time,  if  both  have  the  same  kind  of  movement.  Their  chief  divisions  are  then 
equal  in  duration,  and  one  needs  only  to  divide  them  in  half,  marking  the  two  prin- 
cipal beats : — 

Alio.  ^         ..        ^ 


But  if,  in  the  middle  of  a  piece  slow  in  movement,  there  is  introduced  a  new  form 
brisk  in  movement,  and  if  the  coinpo.ser  (either  for  the  sake  of  facilitating  the  execu- 
tion of  the  quick  movement,  or  because  it  was  impossible  to  write  otherwise)  has 


THEORY   OF  HIS    ART. 


adopted  for  this  new  movement  the  short  bar  which  liorresponds  with  it,  there  may  then 
occur  two,  or  even  three  short  bars  super-added  to  a  slow  bar  :  — 


Allegro. 


I  I  '"  t  N"-  2- 

No.  1. 

CB > —     I-    I  L— L»J  — <^  Ui— 1^ — I-ggza ztp 


J 


-t^- 


1 


.-i 


^: 


Three  bars  to  one. 


■^: 


m 


The  conductor's  task  is  to  guide  and  keep  together  these  different  bars  of  unequal 
number  and  dissimilar  movement.  He  attains  this  by  dividing  the  beats  in  the  an- 
dante bar,  No.  1,  which  pre- 
cedes the  entrance  of  the 
allegro  in  f,  and  by  continu- 
ing to  divide  them;  but 
taking  care  to  mark  the  di- 
vision  more  decidedly.  The 
/\  ^^  players   of   the  allegro  in  f 

y     y    ^  then    comprehend    that  the 

two  gestures  of  the  conductor 
represent  the  two  beats  of 
their  short  bar,  while  the  players  of  the  andante 
take  these  same  gestures  merely  for  a  divided  beat 
of  their  long  bar. 

It  will  be  seen  that  this  is  really  quite  simple, 
because  the  division  of  the  short  bar,  and  the  subdivisions  of  the  long  one,  mutually 
correspond.  The  following  example,  where  a  slow  bar  is  super-added  to  the  short 
ones,  without  this  correspondence  existing,  is  more  awkward  :  — 


Bar  No.  1. 


Bars  Nos.  2,  3,  and  so  on. 


Hautboy.    ^ 


Js 


Js 


£ee^ 


j! 


^^ 


Alio,  assai. 
Violas. 


P^^^ 


$ 


Allegretto. 


Doubly  slow. 


rt: 


^ 


No.  1. 
Maintain  in  the  same  movement. 


No.  2. 


10 


THE    ORCHESTRAL    COyDUCTOR. 


I^ 


No.  3. 


P- 


m 


bV^ 


^-t- 


^~^  It^-— -^=^=^rT-i— ^r^^^^rJ^^JF^— j^ 


Here,  the  three  bars  allegi'O-assai  preceding  the  allegretto  are  beaten  in  simple  two 

time,  as  usual.     At  the  moment  when  the  allegretto  begins,  the  bar  of  which  is  double 

that  of  the  preceding,  and  of  the  one  maintained  by  the  violas, 

the  conductor  marks  two  divided  beats  for  the  long  bar,  by  two 

equal  gestures  down,  and  two  others  up  :  — 

The  two  large  gestures  divide  the  long  bar  in  half,  and  explain 
its  value  to  the  hautboys,  without  perplexing  the  violas,  who  main- 
tain the  brisk  movement,  on  account  of  the  little  gesture  which  also 
divides  in  half  their  short  bar. 
From  bar  No.  3,  the  conductor  ceases  to  divide  thus  the  long  bar  by  4,  on  account 
of  the  triple  rhythm  of  the  melody  in  f,  which  this  gesture  interferes  with.  He  then 
confines  himself  to  marking  the  two  beats  of  the  long  bar  ;  while  the  violas,  already 
launched  in  their  rapid  rhythm,  continue  it  without  difficulty,  comprehending  exactly 
that  each  stroke  of  the  conductor's  stick  marks  merely  the  commencement  of  theii 
short  bar. 

This  last  observation  shows  with  what  care  dividing  the  beats  of  a  bar  should  be 
avoided  when  a  portion  of  the  instruments  or  voices  has  to  execute  triplets  upon  these 
beats.  The  division,  by  cutting  in  half  the  second  note  of  the  triplet,  renders  its  exe- 
cution uncertain.  It  is  even  necessary  to  abstain  from  this  division  of  the  beats  of  a 
bar  just  before  the  moment  when  the  rhythmical  or  melodic  design  is  divided  by  three, 
in  order  not  to  give  to  the  players  the  impression  of  a  rhythm  contrary  to  that  which 
tiiey  are  about  to  hear  :  — 


k 


hSEB 


— I ^ i 1 1 — -  i h- 


■i 1 1 r 


THEORY   OF  HIS  ART. 


11 


In  this  example,  the  subdivision  of  the  bar  into  six,  or  the 
division  of  beats  into  two,  is  useful  ;  and  offers  no  incon- 
venience during  bar  No.  i,  ",vhen  the  following  gestui'e  is 
made :  — 

But  from  the   beginning  of  bar  No.  2  it  is  necessary  to 
make  only  the  simple  gestures  :  — 
on    account   of  the   triplet  on  the  third  beat, 
and  on  account  of  the  one  following  it  -which 
the  double  gesture  would  much  interfere  with. 

In  the  famous  ball-scene  of  Mozart's  Don  Giovanni,  the  difficulty 
of  keeping  together  the  three  orchestras,  written  in  three  different 
measures,  is  less  than  might  be  thought.  It  is  sufficient  to  mark  downwards  each 
beat  of  the  tempo  di  niinuetto  :  — 


Once  entered  upon  the  combination,  the  little  allegro  in  |,  of  which  a  whole  bar  rep- 
resents one-third,  or  one  beat  of  that  of  the  minuetto,  and  the  other  allegro  in  2,  of 
which  a  whole  bar  represents  two-thirds,  or  two  beats,  correspond  with  each  other  and 
with  the  principal  theme  ;  while  the  whole  proceeds  without  the  slightest  confusion. 
All  that  is  requisite  is  to  make  them  come  in  properly. 

A  gross  fault  that  I  have  seen  committed,  consists  in  enlarging  the  time  of  a  piece 
in  common-time,  when  the  author  has  introduced  into  it  triplets  of  minims  :  — 


In  such  a  case,  the  third  minim  adds  nothing  to  the  duration  of  the  bar,  as  some 
conductors  seem  to  imagine.  They  may,  if  they  please,  and  if  the  movement  be  slow 
or  moderate,  make  these  passages  by  beating  the  bar  with  three  beats,  but  the  dura- 
tion of  the  whole  bar  should  remain  precisely  the  same.  In  a  case  where  these  trip- 
lets occur  in  a  very  quick  bar  in  common-time  (allegro-assai),  the  three  gestures  then 
cause  confusion,  and  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  make  only  two,  —  one  beat  upon  the 
first  minim,  and  one  upon  the  third.  These  gestures,  owing  to  the  quickness  of  the 
movement,  differ  little  to  the  eye,  from  the  two  of  the  bar  with  two  equal  beats,  and 
do  not  affect  the  movement  of  those  parts  of  the  orchestra  whicli  contain  no  triplets. 
Alio  Assai. 

-»-   -»~   •*-   -»~  tS-      -i&-      tSi-   -(S^         -^         -^  -^      -1^-    -/^- 


We  will  now  speak  of  the  conductor's  method  of  beating  in  recitatives.     Here,  as  the 
singer  or  the  instrumentalist  is  reciting,  aud  no  longer  subject  to  the  regular  division 


12 


TEE    ORCHESTRAL    CONDUCTOR. 


of  the  bar,  it  is  requisite,  while  following  him  attentively,  to  make  the  orchestra 
strike,  simultaneously  and  with  precision,  the  chords  or  instrumental  passages  with 
which  the  recitative  is  intermingled  ;  and  to  make  the  harmony  change  at  the  proper 
instant,  when  the  recitative  is  accompanied  either  by  holding-notes  or  by  a  tremolo  in 
several  parts,  of  which  the  least  apparent,  occasionally,  is  that  which  the  conductor 
must  most  regard,  since  upon  its  motion  depends  tlie  change  of  chord  :  — 

Example,  not  kept  time  to. 
Violins. 


In  this  example,  the  conductor,  while  following  the  reciting  part,  not  kept  time  to, 
has  especially  to  attend  to  the  viola  pait,  and  to  make  it  move,  at  the  proper  moment, 
from  the  F  to  the  E,  at  the  commencement  of  the  second  bar  ;  because  otherwise,  as 
this  part  is  executed  by  several  instrumentalists  playing  in  unison,  some  of  them  would 
hold  the  F  longer  than  the  rest,  and  a  transient  discord  would  be  produced. 

Many  conductors  have  the  habit,  when  directing  the  orchestra  in  recitatives,  of 
paying  no  heed  to  the  written  division  of  the  bar,  and  of  marking  an  up  beat  before 
that  whereon  a  brief  orchestral  chord  occurs,  even  when  this  chord  comes  on  an 
unaccented  part  of  the  bar  :  — 


Recitative. 


Orchestra. 


es^ 


^ 


4:=^= 


Par  -  lez! 


:dE= 


In  a  passage  such  as  this,  they  raise  the  arm  at  the  rest  which  commences  the  bar, 
and  lower  it  at  the  time  of  the  chord. 

I  cannot  approve  of  such  a  method,  which  nothing  justifies,  and  which  may  fre- 
quently occasion  accidents  in  the  execution.  Neither  do  I  see  why,  in  recitatives,  the 
bar  should  not  be  divided  regularly,  and  the  real  beats  marked  in  their  place,  as  in 
mu.sic  beaten  in  time.  I  therefore  advise  —  for  the  preceding  example  —  that  the  first 
beat  should  be  made  down,  as  usual,  and  the  stick  carried  to  the  left  for  striking  the 
chord  upon  the  second  beat  ;  and  so  on  for  analogous  cases  ;  always  dividing  the  bar 
regularly.  It  is  very  important,  moreover,  to  divide  it  according  to  the  time  previously 
indicated  by  the  author,  and  not  to  forget,  —  if  this  time  is  allegro  or  maestoso,  and  if 
the  reciting  part  has  been  some  time  reciting  unaccompanied, — to  give  to  all  the 
beats,  when  the  orchestra  comes  in  again,  the  value  of  those  of  an  allegi'o  or  of  a  maes- 
toso. For  when  the  orchestra  plays  alone,  it  does  so  generally  in  time  ;  it  plays  with- 
out measured  time  only  when  it  accompanies  a  voice  or  instrument  in  recitative. 

In  the  exceptional  case  where  the  recitative  is  written  for  the  orchestra  itself,  or  for 
the  chorus,  or  for  a  portion  of  either  orchestra  or  chorus,  it  being  then  recjuisite  to 
keep  together,  whether  in  unison  or  in  harmony,  but  without  regular  time,  a  certain 
number  of  performers,  the  conductor  himself  becomes  the  real  reciter,  and  gives  to  each 
beat  of  the  bar  the  duration  he  judges  fit.  According  to  the  form  of  the  phrase,  he 
divides  and  subdivides  the  beats,  now  marks  the  accents,  now  the  semiquavers,  if  there 
are  any,  and,  in  short,  indicates  with  his  stick  the  melodic  form  of  the  recitative. 

It  must  of  course  be  understood  that  the  performers,  knowing  their  parts  almost 


THEORY   OF  HIS   ART.  13 

by  heart,  keep  their  eye  constantly  upou  him,  otherwise,  neither  secui'ity  nor  unity 
can  be  obtained. 

In  general,  even  for  timed  music,  the  conductor  Kshould  require  the  players  he 
directs  to  look  towards  him  as  often  as  possible. 

An  orchestra  which  does  not  watch  the  conducting-stick  has  no  conductor.     Often, 

after  a  pedal-point  for  instance,  the  conductor  is  obliged  to  refrain  from  marking  the 

decisive  gesture  which  is  to  determine  the  coming  in  of  the  orchestra  until  he  sees  the 

eyes  of  all  the  performers  fixed  upon  him.     It  is  the  duty  of  the  conductor,  during 

rehearsal,  to  accustom  them  to  look  towards  him  simultaneously  at  the  important 

moment. 

Alletjretto. 


If  the  rule  just  indicated  were  not  observed  in  the  above  bar,  oi  which  the  first 
beat,  marking  a  pedal-j^oint,  may  be  prolonged  indefinitely,  the  passage  — 


could  not  be  uttered  with  firmness  and  unity  ;  the  players,  not  watching  the  conduc- 
tor's stick,  could  not  know  when  he  decides  the  second  beat  and  resumes  the  movement 
suspended  by  the  pedal-point. 

The  obligation  upon  the  performers  to  look  at  their  conductor  necessarily  implies 
an  equal  obligation  on  his  part  to  let  himself  be  well  seen  by  them.  He  should,  — 
whatever  may  be  the  disposal  of  the  orchestra,  whether  on  rows  of  steps,  or  on  a  hori- 
zontal plane,  —  place  himself  so  as  to  form  the  centre  of  all  surrounding  eyes. 

To  place  himself  well  in  sight,  a  conductor  requires  an  especial  platform,  elevated 
in  proportion  as  the  number  of  performers  is  large  and  occupies  much  space.  His 
desk  should  not  be  so  high  that  the  portion  sustaining  the.  score  shall  hide  his  face 
for  the  expression  of  his  countenance  has  much  to  do  with  the  influence  he  exercises 
If  there  is  no  conductor  for  an  orchestra  that  does  not  and  will  not  watch  him, 
neither  is  there  any  if  he  cannot  be  well  seen. 

As  to  the  employment  of  noises  of  any  kind  whatever,  produced  by  the  stick  of 
the  conductor  upon  his  desk,  or  by  his  foot  upon  the  platform,  they  call  for  no  other 
than  unreserved  reprehension.  It  is  worse  than  a  bad  method  ;  it  is  a  barbarism.  In 
a  theatre,  however,  when  the  stage  evolutions  prevent  the  chorus-singers  from  seeing 
the  conducting-stick,  the  conductor  is  compelled  —  to  ensure,  after  a  pause,  the  taking 
up  a  point  by  the  chorus  —  to  indicate  this  point  by  marking  the  beat  which  precedes 
it  by  a  slight  tap  of  his  stick  upon  the  desk.  This  exceptional  circumstance  is  the 
only  one  which  can  warrant  the  employment  of  an  indicating  noise,  and  even  then  it 
is  to  be  regretted  that  recoiu'se  mu.st  be  had  to  it. 

While  speaking  of  chorus-singers,  and  of  their  operations  in  theatres,  it  may  here 
be  observed  that  chorus-masters  often  allow  themselves  to  beat  time  at  the  side-scenes, 
without  seeing  the  conductor's  stick,  frequently  even  without  hearing  the  orchestra. 
The  result  is  that  this  time,  beaten  more  or  less  ill,  and  not  corresponding  with  that 
of  the  conductor,  inevitably  induces  a  rhythmical  discordance  between  the  choral  and 
instrumental  bodies,  and  subverts  all  unity  instead  of  tending  to  maintain  it. 

There  is  another  traditional  barbarism  which  lies  within  the  province  of  an  intelli- 
gent and  active  conductor  to  abolish.  If  a  choral  or  instrumental  piece  is  performed 
behind  the  scenes,  without  accompaniment  from  the  principal  orchestra,  another  con- 


14  THE    ORCHESTRAL    CONDUCTOR. 

ductor  is  absolutely  essential.  If  the  orchestra  accompany  this  portion,  the  first  con- 
ductor, who  hears  the  distant  music,  is  then  strictly  bound  to  let  hbnself  he  guided  by 
the  second,  and  to  follow  his  time  hy  ear.  But  if  —  as  frequently  happens  in  modern 
music  —  the  sound  of  the  chief  orchestra  hinders  the  conductor  from  hearing  that 
which  is  being  performed  at  a  distance  from  him,  the  intervention  of  a  special  conduct- 
ing mechanism  becomes  indispensable,  in  order  to  establish  instantaneous  commimica- 
tion  between  him  and  the  distant  performers.  Many  attempts,  more  or  less  ingenious, 
have  been  made  of  this  kind,  the  result  of  which  has  not  everywhere  answered  ex- 
pectations. That  of  Covent  Garden  Theatre,  in  London,  moved  by  the  conductor's 
foot,  acts  tolerably  well.  But  the  electric  metronome,  set  up  by  Mr.  Van  Brage  in  the 
Brussels  Theatre,  leaves  nothing  to  be  desired.  It  consists  of  an  apparatus  of  copper 
ribbons,  leading  from  a  Voltaic  battery  placed  beneath  the  stage,  attached  to  the  con- 
ductor's desk,  and  terminating  in  a  movable  stick  fastened  at  one  end  on  a  pivot  before 
a  board  at  a  certain  distance  from  the  orchestral  conductor.  To  this  latter's  desk  is 
affixed  a  key  of  copper,  something  like  the  ivory  key  of  a  pianoforte  ;  it  is  elastic,  and 
provided  on  the  interior  side  with  a  protuberance  of  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  long. 
Immediately  beneath  this  protuberance  is  a  little  cup,  also  of  copper,  filled  with  quick- 
silver. At  the  instant  when  the  orchestral  conductor,  desiring  to  mark  any  particular 
beat  of  a  bar,  presses  the  copper  key  with  the  forefinger  of  his  left  hand  (his  right 
being  occupied  in  holding,  as  usual,  the  conducting-stick)  this  key  is  lowered,  the  pro- 
tuberance passes  into  the  cup  filled  with  quicksilver,  a  slight  electric  spark  is  emitted, 
and  the  stick  placed  at  the  other  extremity  of  the  copper  ribbon  makes  an  oscillation 
before  its  board.  The  coumiunication  of  the  fluid  and  the  movement  are  quite  simul- 
taneous, no  matter  how  great  a  distance  is  traversed. 

The  performers  being  grouped  behind  the  scenes,  their  eyes  fixed  upon  the  stick 
of  the  electric  metronome,  are  thus  directly  subject  to  the  conductor,  who  could, 
were  it  needful,  conduct,  from  the  middle  of  the  Opera  orchestra  in  Paris,  a  piece  of 
music  performed  at  Versailles. 

It  is  merely  requisite  to  agree  upon  beforehand  with  the  chorus-singers,  or  with 
their  conductor  (if  as  an  additional  precaution,  they  have  one),  the  way  in  which  the 
orchestral  conductor  beats  the  time  —  whether  he  marks  all  the  principal  beats,  or 
only  the  first  of  the  bar  —  since  the  oscillations  of  the  stick,  moved  by  electricity, 
being  always  from  right  to  left,  indicate  nothing  precise  in  this  respect. 

When  I  first  used,  at  Brussels,  the  valuable  instrument  I  have  just  endeavored  to 
describe,  its  action  presented  one  objection.  Each  time  that  the  copper  key  of  my 
desk  underwent  the  pressure  of  my  left  forefinger,  it  struck,  underneath,  another 
plate  of  copper,  and,  notwithstanding  the  delicacy  of  the  contact,  produced  a  little 
sharp  noise,  which,  during  the  pauses  of  the  orchestra,  attracted  the  attention  of  the 
audience,  to  the  detriment  of  the  musical  effect. 

I  pointed  out  the  fault  to  Mr.  Van  Bruge,  who  substituted  for  the  lower  plate 
of  copper  the  little  cup  filled  with  quicksilver,  previously  mentioned.  Into  this  the 
protuberance  so  entered  as  to  establish  the  electric  current  without  causing  the 
slightest  noise. 

Nothing  remains  now,  as  regards  the  use  of  this  mechanism,  but  the  crackling 
of  the  spark  at  the  moment  of  its  emission.  This,  however,  is  too  slight  to  be  heard 
by  the  public. 

The  metronome  is  not  expensive  to  put  up  ;  it  costs  .£16  at  the  most.  Large  lyric 
theatres,  churches,  and  concert-rooms  should  long  ago  have  been  provided  with  one. 
Yet,  save  at  the  Brussels  Theatre,  it  is  nowhere  to  be  found.  This  woidd  appear 
incredible,  were  it  not  that  the  carelessness  of  the  majority  of  directors  of  institutions 


THEORY   OF  HIS   ART.  15 

where  music  forms  a  featm-e  is  well  known ;  as  are  their  instinctive  aversion  to  what- 
ever disturbs  old-established  customs,  their  indifference  to  the  interests  of  art,  their 
parsimony  wherever  an  outlay  for  music  is  needed,  and  the  utter  ignorance  of  the 
principles  of  our  art  among  those  in  whose  hands  rests  the  ordering  of  its  destiny. 

I  have  not  yet  said  all  on  the  subject  of  those  dangerous  auxiliaries  named 
chorus-masters.  Very  few  of  them  are  sufficiently  versed  in  the  art,  to  conduct  a 
musical  performance,  so  that  the  orchestral  conductor  can  depend  upon  them.  He 
cannot  therefore  watch  them  too  closely  when  compelled  to  submit  to  their  coad- 
jutorship. 

The  most  to  be  dreaded  are  those  whom  age  has  deprived  of  activity  and  energy. 
The  maintenance  of  vivacious  times  is  an  impossibility  to  them.  Whatever  may  be 
the  degree  of  quickness  indicated  at  the  head  of  a  piece  confided  to  their  conducting, 
little  by  little  they  slacken  its  pace,  until  the  rhythm  is  reduced  to  a  certain  medium 
slowness,  that  seems  to  harmonize  with  the  speed  at  which  their  blood  flows,  and 
the  general  feebleness  of  their  organization. 

It  must  in  truth  be  added,  that  old  men  are  not  the  only  ones  with  whom  com- 
posers run  this  risk.  There  are  men  in  the  prime  of  life,  of  a  lymphatic  tempera- 
ment, whose  blood  seems  to  circulate  moderato.  If  they  have  to  conduct  an  allegro 
assai,  they  gradually  slacken  it  to  moderato;  if,  on  the  contrary,  it  is  a  largo  or  an 
andante  sostenuto,  provided  the  piece  is  prolonged,  they  will,  by  dint  of  progressive 
animation,  attain  a  moderato  long  before  the  end.  The  moderato  is  their  natural 
pace,  and  they  recur  to  it  as  infallibly  as  would  a  pendulum  after  having  been  a 
moment  hurried  or  slackened  in  its  oscillations. 

These  people  are  the  born  enemies  of  all  characteristic  music,  and  the  greatest 
destroyers  of  style.  May  Fate  preserve  the  orchestral  conductor  from  their  co-op- 
eration. 

Once,  in  a  large  town  (which  I  will  not  name),  there  was  to  be  performed  be- 
hind the  scenes  a  very  simple  chorus,  written  in  |,  allegretto.  The  aid  of  the  chorus- 
master  became  necessary.     lie  was  an  old  man. 

The  time  in  which  this  chorus  was  to  be  taken  having  been  first  agi'eed  upon  by 
the  orchestra,  our  Nestor  followed  it  pretty  decently  during  the  first  few  bars;  but, 
soon  after,  the  slackening  became  such  that  there  was  no  continuing  without  render- 
ing the  piece  perfectly  ridiculous.  It  was  recommenced  twice,  thrice,  four  times  ; 
a  full  half-hour  was  occupied  in  ever-increasingly  vexatious  efforts,  but  always  with 
the  same  result.  The  preservation  of  allegretto  time  was  absolutely  impossible  to 
the  worthy  man.  At  last  the  orchestral  conductor,  out  of  all  patience,  came  and 
begged  him  not  to  conduct  at  all  ;  he  had  hit  upon  an  expedient  :  —  He  caused  the 
chorus-singers  to  simulate  a  march-movement,  raising  each  foot  alternately,  without 
moving  on.  This  movement,  being  in  exactly  the  same  time  as  the  dual  rhythm  of 
the  I  in  a  bar,  allegretto,  the  chorus-singers,  who  were  no  longer  hindered  by  their 
director,  at  once  performed  the  piece  as  though  they  had  sung  marching ;  with  no 
less  unity  than  regularity,  and  without  slackening  the  time. 

I  acknowledge,  however,  that  many  chorus-masters,  or  sub-conductors  of  orches- 
tras, are  sometimes  of  real  utility,  and  even  Indispensable  for  the  maintenance  of 
unity  among  very  large  masses  of  performers.  When  these  masses  are  obliged  to  be 
so  disposed  as  ..hat  one  portion  of  the  players  or  chorus-singers  turn  their  back  on 
the  conductor,  he  needs  a  certain  number  of  sub-beaters  of  the  time,  placed  before 
those  of  the  performers  who  cannot  see  him,  and  charged  with  repeating  all  his 
signals.  In  order  that  this  repetition  shall  be  precise,  the  sub-conductors  must  be 
careful  never  to  take  their  eyes  off  the  chief  conductor's  stick  for  a  single  instant. 


1(3  THE    ORCUESTliAL    CONDUCTOR. 

If,  iu  order  to  look  at  their  score,  they  cease  to  watch  hiin  for  only  three  bars,  a 
discrepancy  arises  immediately  between  tlieir  time  and  his,  and  all  is  lost. 

In  a  festival  where  1200  performers  were  assembled  under  my  direction,  at 
I'aris,  I  had  to  employ  four  chorus-masters,  stationed  at  the  four  corners  of  the  vocal 
mass,  and  two  sub-conductors,  one  of  whom  directed  the  wind-instruments,  and  the 
other  the  instruments  of  percussion.  I  had  earnestly  besought  them  to  look  towards 
me  incessantly  ;  they  did  not  omit  to  do  so,  and  our  eight  sticks,  rising  and  falling 
without  the  slightest  discrepancy  of  rhythm,  established  amidst  our  1200  performers 
the  most  perfect  unity  ever  witnessed. 

With  one  or  more  electric  metronomes,  it  seems  no  longer  necessary  to  have 
recom-se  to  this  means.  One  might,  in  fact,  thus  easily  conduct  chorus-singers  who 
turn  their  back  towards  the  chief  conductor  ;  but  attentive  and  intelligent  sub-con- 
ductors are  always  preferable  to  a  machine.  They  have  not  only  to  beat  the  time, 
like  the  metronomic  staff,  but  they  have  also  to  speak  to  the  groups  around  them, 
to  call  their  attention  to  nice  shades  of  execution,  and,  after  bar-rests,  to  remind 
them  when  the  moment  of  their  re-entry  comes. 

In  a  space  arranged  as  a  semicircular  amphitheatre,  the  orchestral  conduct  may 
conduct  a  considerable  number  of  performers  alone,  all  eyes  then  being  able  to  look 
towards  him.  Neverthless,  the  employment  of  a  certain  number  of  sub-conductors 
appears  to  me  preferable  to  individual  direction,  on  account  of  the  great  distance 
between  the  chief  conductor  and  the  extreme  points  of  the  vocal  and  instrumental 
body. 

The  more  distant  the  orchestral  conductor  is  from  the  performers  he  xlirects,  the 
more  his  influence  over  them  is  diminished. 

The  best  way  would  be  to  have  several  sub-conductors,  with  several  electric 
metronomes  beating  before  their  eyes  the  principal  beats  of  the  bar. 

And  now, — should  the  orchestral  conductor  give  the  time  standing  or  sitting 
down  ? 

If,  in  theatres  where  they  perform  scores  of  immense  length,  it  is  very  difficult 
to  endure  the  fatigue  of  remaining  on  foot  the  whole  evening,  it  is  none  the  less  true 
that  the  orchestral  conductor,  when  seated,  loses  a  portion  of  his  power,  and  cannot 
give  free  course  to  his  animation,  if  he  possess  any. 

Then,  should  he  conduct  reading  from  a  full  score,  or  from  a  first  violin  part 
(leader's  copy),  as  is  customary  in  some  theatres  ?  It  is  evident  that  he  should  have 
before  him  a  full  score.  Conducting  by  means  of  a  part  containing  only  the  prin- 
cipal instrumental  cues,  the  bass  and  the  melody,  demands  a  needless  effort  of 
memory  from  a  conductor  ;  and  moreover,  if  he  happens  to  tell  one  of  the  performers, 
whose  part  he  cannot  examine,  that  he  is  wrong,  exposes  him  to  the  chance  of  the 
reply  :  "  How  do  you  know  ?  " 

The  disposal  and  grouping  of  the  players  and  chorus-singers  come  also  within  the 
province  of  the  orchestral  conductor ;  particularly  for  concerts.  It  is  impossible  to 
indicate  arbitrarily  the  best  method  of  grouping  the  performers  in  a  theatre  or  con- 
cert-room ;  the  shape  and  arrangement  of  the  interior  of  these  places  necessarily 
influence  the  course  to  be  taken  in  such  a  case.  Let  us  add,  that  it  depends,  more- 
over, upon  the  number  of  performers  requiring  to  be  grouped  ;  and,  on  some  occa- 
sions, upon  the  style  of  composition  adopted  by  the  author  who.se  work  is  to  be 
performed. 

In  general,  for  concerts,  the  following  disposal  of  the  orchestra  seems  be.st  :  — 
An  amphitheatre  of  eight,  or  at  least,  five  rows  is  indispensable.  The  semicircular 
form  is  tiie  best  for  the  amphitheatre.     If  it  is  large  enough  t(j  contain  the  whole 


THEORY   OF  HIS   ART.  17 

orchestra,  the  entire  mass  of  instrumentalists  can  be  disposed  of  along  these  rows ; 
the  first  violins  in  front  ou  the  right,  facing  the  public  ;  the  second  violins  in  front 
on  the  left  ;  the  violas,  in  the  middle,  between  the  two  groups  of  violins  ;  the  flutes 
hautboys,  clarinets,  horns,  and  bassoons  behind  the  first  violins  ;  a  double  rank  of 
violoncellos  and  double-basses  behind  the  second  violins  ;  the  trumpets,  cornets, 
trombones,  and  tubas  behind  the  violas ;  the  rest  of  the  violoncellos  and  double- 
basses  behind  the  wooden  wind  instruments ;  the  harps  in  the  foreground,  close  to  the 
orchestral  conductor ;  the  kettle-drums,  and  other  instruments  of  percussion  behind 
or  in  the  centre  of  the  brass  instruments  ;  the  orchestral  conductor,  turning  his  back 
to  the  public,  at  the  base  of  the  orchestra,  and  near  to  the  foremost  desks  of  the 
first  and  second  violins. 

There  should  be  a  horizontal  flooring,  or  stage,  more  or  less  wide,  extending  in 
front  of  the  first  rows  of  the  amphitheatre.  On  this  flooring  the  chorus-singers 
should  be  placed,  in  form  of  a  fan  turned  three-quarters  towards  the  public,  so  that 
all  shall  be  able  easily  to  see  the  motions  of  the  orchestral  conductor.  The  grouping 
of  the  chorus-singers,  in  consonance  with  their  respective  order  of  voice,  will  differ 
according  as  the  author  has  written  in  three,  four,  or  six  parts.  At  any  rate,  the 
women  — sopranos  and  contraltos  —  should  be  in  front,  seated;  the  tenors  standing 
behind  the  contraltos  ;  and  the  bas.ses  standing  behind  the  sopranos. 

The  solo-singers  should  occupy  the  centre,  and  foremost,  part  of  the  front  stage, 
and  should  always  place  themselves  in  such  a  way  as  to  be  able,  by  slightly  turning 
the  head,  to  see  the  conductiug-stick. 

For  the  rest,  I  repeat,  these  indications  can  be  but  approximate  ;  they  may  be, 
for  many  reasons,  modified  in  various  ways. 

At  the  Conservatoire,  in  Paris,  where  the  amphitheatre  is  composed  of  only  four 
or  five  rows,  not  circular,  and  cannot  therefore  contain  the  whole  orchesti-a,  the 
violins  and  violas  are  on  the  stage ;  while  the  basses  and  wind  in.struments  alone 
occupy  the  rows  ;  the  chorus  is  seated  on  the  front  of  the  stage,  facing  the  public,  and 
the  women,  sopranos  and  contraltos,  turning  their  backs  directly  upon  the  orchestral 
conductor,  are  utterly  unable  to  see  his  motions.  The  arrangement  is  very  incon- 
venient for  this  portion  of  the  choi'us. 

It  is  of  the  greatest  consequence  that  the  chorus-singers  placed  on  the  front  of 
the  stage  shall  occupy  a  plane  somewhat  lower  than  that  of  the  violins  ;  otherwise 
they  would  considerably  deaden  the  sound  of  these  instruments. 

For  the  same  reason,  if  there  are  no  other  rows  for  the  choir  in  front  of  the 
orchestra,  it  is  absolutely  needful  that  the  women  should  be  seated,  and  the  men 
remain  standing  up  ;  in  order  that  the  voices  of  the  tenors  and  basses,  proceeding 
from  a  more  elevated  point  than  those  of  the  sopranos  and  contraltos,  may  come 
forth  freely,  and  be  neither  stifled  nor  intercepted. 

When  the  presence  of  the  chorus-singers  in  front  of  the  orchestra  is  not  neces- 
sary, the  conductor  must  take  care  to  send  them  away  ;  since  this  large  number  of 
human  bodies  injures  the  sonority  of  the  instruments.  A  symphony  performed  by 
an  orchestra  thus  more  or  less  stifled,  loses  much  of  its  effect. 

There  are  yet  other  precautions,  relative  e.specially  to  the  orchestra,  which  the 
conductor  may  also  take,  to  avoid  certain  defects  in  performance.  The  instruments 
of  percussion,  placed,  as  I  have  indicated,  upon  one  of  the  last  rows  of  the  orchestra, 
have  a  tendency  to  modify  the  rhythm,  and  slacken  the  time.  A  series  of  strokes  on 
the  drum  struck  at  regular  intervals  in  a  (juick  movement,  like  the  following:  — 


18  THE    ORCHESTRAL    CONDUCTOR. 

will  sometimes  lead  to  the  complete  destruction  of  a  fine  rhythmical  progression,  by 
checking  the  onward  bound  of  the  rest  of  the  orchestra,  and  destroying  the  unity. 
Almost  always,  the  drum  player,  through  not  observing  the  original  time  given  by 
the  comiuctor,  is  somewhat  behindhand  in  striking  his  first  stroke.  This  retard- 
ment, multiplied  by  the  number  of  strokes  which  follow  the  first  one,  soon  produces 
—  as  may  be  imagined — a  rhythmical  discrepancy  of  the  most  fatal  effect.  The 
conductor, — all  whose  efforts  to  re-establish  unanimity  are  then  in  vain  —  has  only 
one  thing  left  to  do  ;  which  is,  to  insist  that  the  long  drum  player  shall  count  before- 
hand the  number  of  strokes  to  be  given  in  the  passage  in  question,  and  that,  knowing 
his  part,  he  shall  no  longer  look  at  his  copy,  but  keep  his  eyes  constantly  fixed  upon 
the  conducting-stick  ;  by  which  means  he  will  follow  the  time  without  the  slightest 
want  of  precision. 

Another  retardment,  arising  from  a  different  cause,  frequently  takes  place  in  the 
trumpet-parts.;  it  is  when  they  contain  a  quick  flow  of  passages  such  as  this:  — 


Allegro 


The  trumpet-player,  instead  of  taking  breath  before  the  first  of  these  three  bars, 
takes  breath  at  their  commencement,  during  the  quaver -rest,  A  ;  and,  not  counting 
for  anything  the  short  time  it  has  taken  him  to  breathe,  gives  its  whole  value  to  the 
quaver-rest,  which  thus  becomes  superadded  to  the  value  of  the  first  bar.  The  result 
of  this  is  the  following:  — 

Allegro.  A 


an  effect  all  the  worse  because  the  final  accent,  struck  at  the  commencement  of  the 
third  bar  by  the  rest  of  the  orchestra,  comes  a  third  of  the  time  too  slow  in  the  trum- 
pets, and  destroys  unity  in  the  striking  of  the  last  chord. 

To  obviate  this,  the  conductor  must  first  previously  warn  the  players  against 
such  inexactness,  into  which  they  almost  all  are  led  to  fall  unawares  ;  and  then, 
while  conducting,  must  cast  a  glance  towards  them  at  the  decisive  moment,  and 
anticipate  a  little,  by  beating  the  first  beat  of  the  bar  where  they  come  in.  It  is 
incredible  how  difficult  it  is  to  prevent  trumpet-players  from  doubling  the  value  of  a 
quaver-rest  thus  placed. 

When  a  long  accelerando,  little  by  little,  is  indicated  by  the  composer,  for  passing 
from  an  allegro  moderato  to  a  presto,  the  majority  of  orche.stral  conductors  hurry  the 
time  by  jerks,  instead  of  quickening  it  equally  throughout,  by  an  insensible  onward 
rate.     This  should  be  carefully  avoided. 

The  same  remark  applies  to  the  converse  proposition.  It  is  even  more  difficult 
to  slacken  a  quick  time  smoothly,  and  without  checks,  so  as  to  transform  it  little  by 
little  into  a  slow  time.  Often,  from  a  desire  to  testify  zeal,  or  from  defect  of  delivery 
in  his  musical  feeling,  a  conductor  demands  from  his  players  an  exaggeration  of  nice 
gradations.  lie  comprehends  neither  the  character  nor  the  style  of  the  piece.  The 
gradations  then  become  so  many  blemi.shes  ;  the  accents,  yells  ;  the  intentions  of  the 
poor  composer  are  totally  disfigured  and  perverted  ;  while  those  of  the  orchestral 
conductor  —  however  politeh'  meant  they  may  be  —  are  none  the  less  injurious  :  like 
the  caresses  of  the  ass  in  the  fable,  who  crushed  his  master  while  fondling  him. 

And  now  let  us  instance  many  deplorable  abuses  that  are  obtained  in  almost  all 


THEORY   OF  HIS   ART. 


19 


the  orchestras  of  Europe  —  abuses  which  reduce  composers  to  despair,  and  which  it  is 
the  duty  of  conductors  to  abolish  as  soon  as  possible. 

Performers  playing  stringed  instruments  will  rarely  give  themselves  the  trouble 
to  play  a  tremolo  ;  they  substitute  for  this  very  characteristic  effect,  a  tame  repetition 
of  the  note,  half,  and  sometimes  three-quarters  slower  than  the  one  whence  results 
the  tremolo :  instead  of  demisemiquavers,  they  make  triple  or  double  ones ;  and  in 
lieu  of  producing  sixty-four  notes  in  a  bar  in  four-time  (adagioj,  they  produce  only 
thirty-two,  or  even  sixteen.  The  action  of  the  arm  necessary  for  producing  a  true 
tremolo,  demands  from  them  too  great  an  effort.     This  idleness  is  intolerable. 

Many  double-bass  players  permit  themselves  —  from  idleness,  also,  or  from  a 
dread  of  being  unable  to  achieve  certain  difficulties  —  to  simplify  their  part.  This 
race  of  simplifiers  has  existed  for  forty  years ;  but  it  cannot  endure  any  longer.  In 
ancient  works,  the  double-bass  parts  were  extremely  simple ;  therefore  there  can  be 
no  reason  to  impoverish  them  still  more  :  those  in  modern  scores  are  rather  more 
difficult,  it  is  true  ;  but,  with  very  few  exceptions,  there  is  nothing  in  them  impossible 
of  execution  ;  composers,  masters  of  their  art,  write  them  with  care,  and  as  they 
ought  to  be  executed.  If  it  is  from  idleness  that  the  simplifiers  pervert  them,  the 
energetic  orchestral  conductor  is  armed  with  the  necessary  authority  to  compel  the 
fulfilment  of  their  duty.  If  it  is  from  incapacity,  let  him  dismiss  them.  It  is  his 
best  interest  to  rid  himself  of  instrumentalists  who  cannot  play  their  instrument. 

Flute-players,  accustomed  to  having  their  parts  written  in  the  upper  octave,  and 
not  admitting  that  their  part  can  be  written  below  that  of  clarinets  or  hautboys,  fre- 
quently transpose  entire  passages  an  octave  higher.  The  conductor,  if  he  does  not 
carefully  peruse  his  score,  if  he  is  not  thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  work  he  is  con- 
ducting, or  if  his  ear  lacks  keenness,  will  not  perceive  the  strange  liberty  thus  taken. 
Nevertheless,  multitudes  of  such  instances  occur,  and  care  should  be  taken  to  banish 
them  entirely. 

It  happens  everywhere  (I  do  not  say  in  some  orchestras  only)  — that  when  ten, 
fifteen,  or  twenty  violinists  have  to  play  the  same  part  in  unison,  that  they  do  not 
count  the  bars'  rest;  each,  from  idleness,  relying  on  the  others  doing  it.  Whence  it  fol- 
lows that  scarcely  half  of  them  come  in  again  at  the  right  moment ;  while  the  rest  still 
hold  their  instrument  under  their  left  arm,  and  look  about  them.  Thus  the  point 
is  greatly  weakened,  if  not  entirely  missed.  I  invoke  the  attention  and  vigor  of 
orchestral  conductors  to  this  insufferable  habit.  It  is,  however,  so  rooted  that  they 
will  only  ensure  its  extirpation  by  making  a  large  number  of  violinists  amenable  for 
the  fault  of  a  single  player  ;  by  inflicting  a  fine,  for  example,  upon  a  whole  row,  if  one 
of  them  mi.sses  coming  in.  Even  were  this  fine  no  more  than  half-a-crown,  I  will 
answer  for  it  that  each  of  the  violinists  would  count  his  rests,  and  keep  watch  that  his 
neighbors  did  the  same,  since  it  might  be  inflicted  five  or  six  times  upon  the  same 
individuals  in  the  course  of  one  performance. 

An  orchestra,  the  instruments  of  which  are  not  in  tune  individually,  and  with 
each  other,  is  a  monstrosity  ;  the  conductor,  therfore,  should  take  the  greatest  care 
that  the  musicians  tune  accurately.  But  this  operation  should  not  be  performed  in 
presence  of  the  public;  and,  moreover,  every  instrumental  noise  —  every  kind  of 
preluding  between  the  acts  —  constitutes  a  real  offence  to  all  civilized  auditors.  The 
bad  training  of  an  orchestra,  and  its  musical  mediocrity  is  to  be  inferred  from  the 
impertinent  noise  it  makes  during  the  periods  of  quiet  at  an  Opera  or  Concert. 

It  is  also  imperative  for  a  conductor  not  to  allow  clarinet-players  to  use  always 
tne  same  instrument  (the  clarinet  in  Bb),  without  regard  to  the  author's  indications  ; 
jast  as  if  the  different  clarinets  —  those  in  D  and  A,  particularly  —  had  not  a  special 


20  THE    ORCHESTRAL    CONDUCTOR. 

character  of  their  own,  of  which  the  intelligent  composer  knows  the  exact  value  ;  and 
as  if  the  clarinet  in  A  had  not  moreover  a  low  semitone  more  than  the  clarinet  in 
Ify  — ,  the  Cf,  of  excellent  effect, 


produced  by  the  E,  Ffe H  which  E  gives  only  the  I), 


m 


on  the  clarinet  in  1\. 

A  habit  as  vicious,  and  still  more  baneful,  has  crept  into  many  orchestras  since 
the  introduction  of  horns  with  cylinders  and  2)istons  :  it  is  that  of  playing  in  open 
sounds;  by  means  of  the  new  mechanism  adapted  to  the  instrument,  those  notes 
intended  by  the  composer  to  be  produced  in  closed  sounds,  by  means  of  the  right  hand 
within  the  bell.  Moreover,  the  horn-players  nowadays,  on  account  of  the  facility 
afforded  by  the  pistons  or  cylinders  for  putting  their  instrument  into  different  keys, 
use  only  the  horn  in  F  whatever  may  be  the  key  indicated  by  the  author.  This  cus- 
tom gives  rise  to  a  host  of  inconveniences,  from  which  the  conductor  should  use  all 
his  efforts  to  preserve  the  works  of  composers  ivho  know  how  to  write. 

He  should  also  set  his  face  against  the  economical  fashion  adopted  by  certain 
theatres  —  called  lyric  —  of  causing  the  cymbals  and  the  long  di-um  to  be  played  by 
the  same  performer.  The  sound  of  the  cymbals  when  attached  to  the  drum  — as 
they  must  be  to  render  this  economy  feasible  —  is  an  ignoble  noise,  fit  only  for  bands 
at  tea-gardens.  This  custom,  moreover,  leads  mediocre  composers  into  tiie  habit  of 
never  employing  one  of  these  instruments  without  the  other,  and  considering  their 
use  as  solely  confined  to  forcibly  marking  the  accented  parts  of  the  bar.  This  is  an 
idea  fruitful  in  noisy  platitudes ;  and  one  that  has  brought  upon  us  the  ridiculous 
excesses  beneath  which,  if  a  stop  be  not  put  to  them,  dramatic  music  will  sooner  or 
later  sink. 

I  conclude  by  expressing  sincere  regret  at  beholding  choral  and  orchestral  stud- 
ies still  so  badly  organized.  Everywhere,  for  grand  choral  and  instrumental  compo- 
sitions, the  system  of  rehearsals  in  the  mass  is  maintained.  They  make  all  the 
chorus-singers  study  at  once,  on  the  one  hand ;  and  all  the  in.strumentalists  at  once, 
on  the  other.  Deplorable  errors,  innumerable  mistakes,  are  thus  committed  —  par- 
ticularly in  the  intermediate  parts  —  errors  which  the  chorus-master  and  the  con- 
ductor do  not  perceive.  Once  established,  these  errors  degenerate  into  habits,  and 
become  part  and  parcel  of  the  execution. 

The  hapless  chorus-singers,  moreover,  are  by  far  the  worst  treated  of  all  the  per- 
formers during  their  studies,  such  as  they  are.  Instead  of  giving  them  a  good  con- 
ductor, knowing  the  times  of  the  different  movements  accurately,  and  proficient  in  the 
art  of  singing,  to  beat  the  time,  and  make  critical  ob.servations  :  a  good  pianist,  play- 
ing/ro?u  a  well-arranged  pianoforte  score,  upon  a  good  piano ;  and  a  violinist,  to  play 
in  luiison  or  in  octave  with  the  voices  as  each  part  is  learned  alone  —  instead  of  these 
three  indispensable  artists,  they  commit  them  (in  two-thirds  of  the  lyric  theatres  of 
Europe)  to  the  superintendence  of  a  single  man,  who  has  no  more  idea  of  the  art  of 
conducting  than  of  that  of  singing,  who  is  generally  a  poor  musician,  selected  from 
among  the  worst  pianists  to  be  found,  or  who  cannot  play  the  pianoforte  at  all — some 
old  superannuated  individual,  who,  seated  before  a  battered  out-of-tune  instrument, 
tries  to  decipher  a  dislocated  score  which  he  does  not  know,  strikes  false  chords 
major,  when  they  are  minor,  or  vice-versa,  and  under  the  protextof  conducting  and  of 
accompanying  by  himself,  employs  his  right  hand  in  setting  the  chorus-singers  wrong 
in  their  time,  and  his  left  hand  in  setting  them  wrong  in  their  tune. 


THEORY    OF  HIS   jlR2.  21 

One  might  believe  one's  self  in  the  Dark  Ages,  on  witnessing  such  an  exhibition  of 
Gothish  economy. 

A  faithful,  well-colored,  clever  interpretation  of  a  modern  work,  even  when  con- 
fided to  artists  of  a  higher  order,  can  only  be  obtained,  I  firmly  believe,  by  partial  re- 
hearsals. Each  part  of  a  chorus  should  be  studied  singly  until  it  is  thoroughly  known, 
before  combining  it  with  the  others.  The  same  step  should  be  taken  with  regard  to 
the  orchestra,  for  a  symphony  at  all  complicated.  The  violins  should  first  be  practised 
alone  ;  the  violas  and  basses  by  themselves ;  the  wooden  wind  instruments  (with  a 
small  band  of  stringed  instruments,  to  fill  in  the  rests,  and  accustom  the  wind  instru- 
ments to  the  points  of  re-entrance)  and  the  brass  instruments  the  same ;  and  very 
often  it  is  necessary  to  practise  the  instruments  of  percussion  alone  ;  and  lastly,  the 
harps,  if  they  be  numerous.  The  studies  in  combination  are  then  far  more  profitable, 
and  more  rapid  ;  and  there  is  then  good  hope  of  attaining  fidelity  of  interpretation, 
now,  alas,  but  too  rare. 

The  performances  obtained  by  the  old  method  of  study  are  merely  approaches  to 
achievement  ;  beneath  which  so  very  many  masterpieces  have  succumbed.  The  super- 
intending conductor,  after  the  butchering  of  a  master,  none  the  less  serenely  lays  down 
his  stick  with  a  satisfied  smile  ;  and  if  some  few  misgivings  remain  with  him  as  to  the 
mode  in  which  he  has  fulfilled  his  task,  should  no  one  venture  at  the  close  to  dispute 
its  accomplishment,  he  murmurs  aside  :  "  Bah  !  vse  victis  !" 

Hector  Bkrlioz. 


COMPLETE  SET  OF  SELF= INSTRUCTORS 

For  All  Orchestra  and  Band  Instruments 

.    .    .    liV    .    .    . 

OTTO  LANGEY  and  PAUL  DE  VILLE. 


CARL  FISCHER'S  REVISED  AND  ONLY  COMPLETE  EDITION. 

Hitherto,  tutors  for  orchestral  or  band  instruments  have  been  either  too  expensive 
to  suit  the  pocliets  of  musicians,  or,  being  cheaper,  been  so  meagre  in  the  information 
contained  tlierein  that  they  were  totally  unsuited  to  the  educational  needs  of  students. 

To  meet  these  objections,  the  pen  of  such  celebrated  writers  as  C).  Langey  and 
Paul  De  Ville  has  been  brought  into  requistion,  and  as  a  result  produced  a  series  of 
works,  unifjue  of  their  kind,  remarkable  for  their  lucidity  and  surprising  for  tlie 
arrangement  of  their  contents.  They  are  progressive  in  the  true  sen.se  of  the  word, 
containing  studies  which,  like  the  steps  of  a  ladder,  lead  higher  and  higher  as  each  one 
is  stirmounted  ttntil  the  highest  point  is  attained.     The  Scales  ix  these  works  are 

FEATTRES  NOT  TO  BE  OVERLOOKED,  ANI>  NO  OTHER  WORKS  ARE  SO  COMPLETE  IN 
THIS    PARTICULAR    AS    THESE. 

Each    work    is    concise,    comprehensive    and   up   to   date,   containing    no 
superfluous  matter.     The  series  embraces  the  following : 

Violin,  Viola,  Cello,  3-String  Bass,  4-String  Bass, 

Clarinet,  Piccolo,  Flute,  Oboe,  Bassoon,  French  Horn, 

Eb  Cornet,  Bb  Cornet,  Eb  Alto,  Bb  Tenor, 

Bb  Tenor  Slide  Trombone  in  Treble  Clef,  Bb  Tenor  Slide  Trombone  in 

Bass  Clef,  Bb  Tenor  Valve  Trombone  in  Treble  Clef 

Bb  Tenor  Valve  Trombone  in  Bass  Clef, 

Bb  Baritone  or  Euphonium  in  Bass  Clef,  Bb  Baritone  or  Euphonium  in 

Treble  Clef,  Saxophone, 

Eb  Tuba  or  Eb  Bass,  Drums,  (Xylophone,  Tympanies  and  Castanets), 

Piano  (Foreign  fingering).  Piano  (American  fingering). 

Organ,  Zither,  Guitar,  Banjo,  Mandolin. 

MONARCH  BRAND 

IMPORTED  MUSIC  WRITING  PAPER. 

Eacli  sheet  bears  the  Trade  Mark  ( Lion  Head )  and  the  name   Carl  Fischer, 

New  York.  The  C.  Fischer  Monarch  Brand  Imported  Music  Writing  Paper  is  of  such 
close  texture  and  so  well  finished  that  summer  or  winter  it  presents  the  same  hard 
surface  and  is  impenetrable  to  ink.     6  different  sizes  and  27  different  rulings. 

Per  Quire.     Per  Keam. 

Size  6fx5.l,  Quickstep  size.  9  staves,  oblong §  .40  $4.50 

Size  10.ix6'f  Zithermusic  size.  0  or  8  staves 50  7.85 

Size  ejxlOJ,  Octavo  .size.  8,  10,  12.  14,  W  staves -50  7.85 

Size  9x12,  Medium  .size.  10,  12,  14,  16  staves        70  10.75 

Size  lOjxlSj,  Regular  size,  10,  12,  14,  16.  18.  20.  22.  24  staves       .     .      80  13.75 

Size  lOfxlSJ,  Regular  size,  12  staves  for  Piano  music 80  13.75 

Size  10fxl3|,  Regular  size,  12  staves  for  Piano  and  Voice,  Piano  and 

"Violin,  or  Piano  and  another  Instrument 80  13.75 

Size  13JxlO^,  Regular  size,  oblong,  10,  16,  18,  20,  22,  24  stave?     .     .     .80  13.75 


Works  of  Edncational  Value  Indispensable  to  both  Teacher  and 
Student.    C.  Fischer's  Editions. 


CLARINET. 

Klose,  H.  Complete  :Method  for 
the  Clarinet,  as  used  at  the  Paris 
Conservatory.  (Ordinary  system, 
also  Albert  &  Boehm  system.) 
Newly  revised  and  with  numerous 
Additions  by  C.  L.  Staats.)  .$3.00 

Kroepsch,  F.  Studies  for  Clarinet, 
progressively  arranged. 

— Part  I.  lt!7  daily  exercises  (Vel- 
ocity and  Cadences).  .75 

— Part  II.  183  daily  exercises  (Vel- 
ocity and  Cadences).  .90 

— Part  III.  40  Studies  for  advanced 
players  (Modulation).  .75 

—Part  IV.     2(3  Studies  for  Artists.       .90 

Clarinetist's  Studio,  by  Paul  I)e- 
Ville.  A  grand  collection  of  98 
solos  for  Bif  Clarinet.  Book  I,  II. 
Paper.  '«  2.00 

Richter,  Carl.  Classic  Favorites. 
Containing  20  well  known  melo- 
dies, arranged  for  Bb  Clarinet  and 
Piano.     Book  I.  II.  (&  1.00 

CORNET. 

Arban's  Celebrated  Cornet  Method. 
(English,  German  and  French.) 
The  largest,  finest  and  most  com- 
plete edition  of  '  •  Arban's  Method ' ' 
ever  published.  335  Pages  Com- 
plete. 3.00 
Arban's  Celebrated  Cornet  Method. 

Abridged.     139  pages.  '  1.00 

St.  Jacome.  Complete  Tutor  for 
the  Cornet.  In  two  volumes. 
Vol.  1.  2.00 

Vol.  II.  2.50 

Complete.  4.00 

Arban's     Art  of  Phra.sing.  1.00 

— 14    Characteristic   Studies.  .75 

— 12     Fantasias     and    Airs     varies.    .75 
— Daily  Re.spiratory  and  Lip   Elxer- 

cises  and  Tone  Producer.  .75 

St.    Jacome.      12  characteristic 

studies.  1.00 

—12  Grand  Artistic  Studies.  1.20 

— 25  Brilliant  Exerci-ses.  .75 

Cornetist's    Joy.     A  Collection  of 
36    celebrated     Cornet    Solos,    by 
Hartmann,  Liberati,  etc. 
— Cornet  part.  1.00 

—Piano  part.  2.00 

Happy  Hours,  by  Paul  De  Ville. 
A  (irand  Collection  of  30  popular 
and    standard   operatic    melodies. 
— Cornet  and  Piano.  .75 

— Cornet  part.  .25 

Hoch  Album.  Containing  16  Ori- 
ginal Compositions  by  Theodore 
Hoch.  1.00 


TROMBONE. 

Bonnisseau's  Cnmplete  Method  for 
Bb  Tenor  Slide  Trombone  in  bass 
or  treble  clef.  (  C.  Fi.scher's  new 
and  revised  editi<m.)  (s  1.50 

Dieppo's    Complete   Method    for 

the  Slide  and  Valve  Trombone  in 
bass  clef.  Revised  and  enlarged 
by  Paul  de  Ville.  C.  Fischer's 
World  Edition.  2.00 

The    Universal    Method    for  the 

Slide  and  Valve  Trombone,  in  bass 
and  treble  clef,  by  Paul  de  Ville. 
This  work  contains  the  best  and 
most  valuable  matter  from  the 
works  of  the  world' s  greatest  writers 
for  Trombone,  viz  : — Belcke,  Bon- 
nisseau,  Clodomir,  Cornette,  Diep- 
pe, Reinhardt,  Vobarou,  Wagner, 
etc.  It  contains  exercises,  studies, 
etc.,  in  both  clefs.  2.00 

Blume,  O.  36  Studies  for  Trom- 
bone, (German  and  English.) 
Book  I.  12  Studies  in  all  the  Ma- 
jor and  Minor  Keys  for  Beginners.     .60 

— Book  II.     For  advanced  Scholars.     .60 

— Book  III.  For  more  experienced 
Scholars.  .60 

Dieppo.  9  progressive  studies  for 
Slide  or  Valve  Trombone.  .60 

Reinhardt.  31  Studies  for  the 
Trombone.  .60 

Vobaron,  op.  1.  4  Lessons  and  17 
Studies.  .75 

Wagner,  A.  27  Etudes  for  the 
Trombone.  .60 

Dieppo= Vobaron.     3  Operatic  Fan- 
tasias for  Slide  or  Valve  Trombone.  .40 
Vobaron.     32    Melodies  for  Trom- 
bone. 1.25 
—32  Melodies  for  2  Trombones.           2.00 
The  Trombone   Soloist.      C.  Fis- 
cher's grand  Colleclion  of  48  cele- 
brated Solos  for  Trombone  in  Bass 
or  Treble  clef  and  Piano. 
—Solo  Part.                                          @    .75 
—Piano  Part.                                       @  1.60 
—Solo  Part  and  Piano.                     @  2.00 


E^  TUBA  OR  B>  BASS. 

Tuba    Player's     Vade     Mecum. 

Tonal  Studies.  Solos  and  Extracts 
from  well-known  works  of  cele- 
brated masters.     Paper.  1.50 


Violin  Methods,  Studies,  and  Solo  Books. 


METHODS. 

Alard,  D.  Complete  Conservatory 
Method  for  the  Violin.  Original 
Edition  with  English,  German  and 
French  text.  Newly  revised  and 
enlarged,  embracing  Alard  Op.  10, 
10  melodic  studies  with  accompani- 
ment of  a  second  violin.  Complete. $3. 00 
De  Beriot's  Celebrated  Method  for 
the  Violin.  The  only  edition  ac- 
cording to  the  Original.  English 
and  German.  VoLI,  II,  III.  @  1.20 
— Complete  in  1  vol.  Boards.  3.00 

Dancla,  Ch.,  op.  52.    Conservatory 
Violin  Method.     (English,  French 
and  German.)     Newly  revised  and 
enlarged  by  G.  Saenger. 
—Part  I.  1.00 

—Part  II.  1.75 

—Complete  3.00 

David,  F.    Violin  School.    New  and 
revised  edition.     English  and  Ger- 
man text. 
—Part  I.  1.25 

—Part  II.  1.75 

—Complete.  3.00 

Henning.     Violin  School.     English 

and  German. 
— Complete.  1.50 

Hofmann,  R.,op.  31.   ViolinSchool. 
— Part  I.     (English  and  German.)       1.50 
Schubert,  Louis,   op.    50.     Violin 
School      on      modern      principles. 
(English,  French  and  German.) 
2  vols.  @  .75 

Wichtl,  op.  10.  Young  Violinist 
with  PleyePs  Duets  and  select 
compositions  for  violin  and  piano. 
(English,  German  and  French.) 
Boards.  1.25 

Wohlfahrt,  op.  38.  Easiest  begin- 
ning. 1.00 

VIOLIN  STUDIES. 

Alard,  D.,  op.  10.  Ten  melodious 
studies  in  first  and  second  position 
with  accompaniment  of  a  second 
violin.  1.50 

Blumenstengel,  A.  Scales  and 
Exercises  of  Velocity.  Book  I. 
1st  position.  ..''jO 

— Book  II.     The  first  3  positions.         .50 

Dancla,  Chas.,  op.  74.  School  of 
Velocity.  50  daily  Exercises. 
(Engli.sh,  German  and  French.)        .50 

David  F.  Scale  Studies  (in  one  and 
two  octaves.)  .40 


Dont  J.,  op.  37.  Preparatory  Ex- 
ercises to  the  studies  of  Kreutzer 
&  liode.  ..50 

Gavinies.  24  Matinees.  Revised  by 
Kross.  (English  and  (Jerman.) 
J^dited  by  Gustav  Saenger.  .50 

Fiorillo.  36  Etudes  or  Caprices, 
revised  by  Kross.  (English  and 
German.)  Edited  by  Gustav  Saen- 
ger. .50 

Hrimaly,  J.  Scale  Studies, (EuglLsh 
French  and  German.)  1.00 

Kayser,  op.  20.  36  Elementary  and 
progressive  studies.  1.00 

Kreutzer.  42  studies  with  additiou 
of  the  12th  study  augmented  with 
descending  chords.     (Singer.)  .50 

Kross  E.,  op.  40.  The  Art  of  Bow- 
ing. A  practical  and  theoretical 
guide  for  developing  the  technic  of 
the  bow  and  for  acquiring  a  fine 
tone.  English  and  German  Text. 
Eng.  translation  by  G.  Saenger.       1.25 

Massart  L.  The  Art  of  studying 
Kreutzer's  Etudes.  412  Examples 
compiled  according  to  Kreutzer's 
Indications,  by  L.  Massart.  Re- 
vised and  translated  by  G.  Saenger. 
English,  French  and  German  text.    .60 

Mazas  F.,  op.  36.  Part  I.  Etudes 
.special  es.  .50 

— Part  II.     P^tudes  brillantes.  .50 

Rode  P.,  pp.  22.  24  Caprices,  re- 
vi.sed  by"  Kross.  Edited  by  G. 
Saenger.  .50 

Scholz,  Richard.  The  Technic  <k 
the  Violin  in  its  entirety,  presenteu 
according  to  the  latest  System  and 
illustinted  with  numerous  explana- 
tory examples.  Together  with  the 
Art  of  Musical  Interpretation  with 
special  references  to  the  Art  of 
Violin-playing.  A  practical  text- 
book for  Violinists.  Translated 
and  augumented  by  Gustav  Saen- 
ger. 1.00 

CELLO. 

Werner,  Joseph,  op.  12.  Cello 
School.  With  numerous  fine 
Photos.  (English,  French  and 
German  text. )  Together  with  Art 
of  Bowing,  op.  43.     Complete.        2.00 

— Op.  43.  The  Art  of  Bowing. 
(English  and  German.)  1.00 

Schuiz,  Leo.  Album  for  Cello  and 
Piano,  arr.  by  Leo  Schuiz  and 
others.  (Containing  33  composi- 
tions by  Bach,  Chopin,  Correlli, 
Loccatelli,  Mendelssohn,  etc.)  1.50 


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